The Qurʾan, Calligraphy, and the Early Civilization of Islam
The emergence and evolution of Arabic calligraphy marked a significant milestone in early Islamic civilization. The earliest surviving manuscripts of the Qur'an date back to the first century of Islam, approximately from the seventh to the early eighth century CE. During the Umayyad period, traditional scripts began to transition into more geometrically structured "Kufic" styles, which continued to thrive and diversify under the Abbasids. These scripts eventually gave way to new angular and cursive trends by the tenth century. Initially driven by the imperative to preserve the Qur'anic text, this evolution catalyzed the development of a fully-fledged art form that profoundly reshaped the legacy of late antique scribal traditions. This transformative process can be examined on two primary fronts: first, at the textual level, where there was a gradual endeavor to fill in the gaps inherent in the written form of the sacred text, and secondly, at an aesthetic level, where calligraphy became a powerful visual symbol of Islam.
- Emergence of Arabic calligraphy was a significant development in early Islamic civilization
- Earliest manuscripts of the Qur'an date back to the first century of Islam (seventh to early eighth century CE)
- Transition from traditional scripts to geometrically codified "Kufic" styles occurred during the Umayyad period
- Kufic scripts continued to flourish and diversify under the Abbasids
- New angular and cursive trends emerged in the tenth century, superseding Kufic styles
- Evolution of calligraphy initially driven by the necessity to preserve the Qur'anic text
- Development of calligraphy as a fully-fledged art form transformed late antique scribal traditions
- Process analyzed at two main levels: textual, involving filling in gaps in the written form of the sacred text, and aesthetic, as a visual symbol of Islam
The Arabic Script before Islam
Before the advent of Islam, Arab society was predominantly oral, with poetry as its primary art form, cherished as an intangible heritage "in the breasts of men" according to Arabic expression. Written language held a secondary role, evidenced by the discovery of thousands of pre-Islamic inscriptions in the Arabian desert, often brief invocations or simple declarations carved by travelers and nomads. There exists a significant time gap between the last Nabataean papyri, dating back to the second century and found in Petra, and the earliest Arabic documents from the first decades of Islam in the seventh century. However, historical context suggests the likelihood of Arabic portable documents being used for correspondence, contracts, and other practical purposes during this interim period. While papyrus may have still been utilized, it may have needed to be imported, with archaeological findings in Yemen indicating the use of makeshift writing materials like palm stalks, ceramic fragments, and bones. These materials, being readily available and cost-effective, were likely employed in the neighboring Hijaz region, recognized as the birthplace of Islam, and are referenced in later Arabic accounts detailing the early notation of the Qur'an.
- In antiquity, Old Arabic, the precursor to Qur'anic Arabic, was written by adopting alphabets from neighboring regions like South Arabian in Yemen and Ancient North Arabian in the Hijaz.
- These scripts were all derived from the South Semitic alphabet, now represented by the Ethiopic syllabary.
- The Nabataean script, originating in the northwest Arabian Peninsula, began to dominate by the fourth century, eventually evolving into the Arabic script we recognize today.
- During this evolution, Nabataean letter shapes underwent progressive changes, and ligatures shifted from the top to the bottom of the writing line.
- Ironically, the extinct Ancient North Arabian scripts were better suited for recording the full range of Arabic sounds compared to Nabataean.
- Nabataean script, an Aramaic alphabet, had limitations, offering only around 16 letter shapes to represent the 28 phonemes of Arabic (29 including the glottal stop, hamza).
- This deficiency became more pronounced for longer or less familiar texts, highlighting the challenges faced during the early years of Islam in recording Arabic texts accurately.
The origin of the Arabic script has been a subject of scholarly debate, with recent discoveries shedding new light on its roots. Previously, there was a prevailing belief among scholars that the Arabic script had its origins in Syriac, the written form of the Aramaic dialect of Edessa. Syriac was a prominent language in the first millennium, associated with the Syrian Orthodox Church and the Church of the East, also known as the "Jacobite" and "Nestorian" churches, respectively. These churches were active in missionary endeavors across the Middle East, extending their influence to regions like Yemen, East Arabia, India, and Central Asia. It is believed that in their efforts to reach out to Arab communities, particularly those in the desert areas between Syria and Iraq, they utilized the Arabic script, despite not being its inventors.
However, recent archaeological findings have challenged this notion, pointing instead to a Nabataean origin of the Arabic script. The discovery of transitional late Nabataean inscriptions, especially in Saudi Arabia, has provided compelling evidence in support of this theory. These inscriptions suggest a gradual evolution of the Nabataean script into what eventually became the Arabic script.
The Nabataeans were an ancient Semitic people who inhabited parts of present-day Jordan, Israel, and Saudi Arabia. They were known for their sophisticated civilization, particularly their mastery of trade routes and water management systems. The Nabataean script, which was based on the Aramaic alphabet, began to gain prominence in the northwest Arabian Peninsula by the fourth century.
As the Nabataean script spread and evolved, several changes occurred, including the transformation of letter shapes and the repositioning of ligatures within the writing system. This evolution ultimately led to the development of the Arabic script as we recognize it today.
The discovery of transitional Nabataean inscriptions provides valuable insights into the early development of the Arabic script and its gradual emergence as a distinct writing system. While the exact circumstances surrounding the adoption of the Arabic script by Arab communities remain subject to further research and interpretation, these findings challenge previous assumptions about its origins and underscore the complex interplay of cultural exchange and linguistic evolution in the ancient Middle East.
- Only three dated pre-Islamic inscriptions in the fully formed "Arabic" script have been discovered to date.
- These inscriptions are from Greater Syria: Zabad (512 CE) and Harran (568 CE), originally from churches, and a graffito from Jabal Usays (529 CE) carved by an envoy of the Ghassanid king al-Harith ibn Jabala (r. 529–569).
- These inscriptions exhibit visual contrasts with the latest dated Nabataean transitional texts.
- The ligatures in the Arabic script have become straight, and the tall strokes are parallel to one another and slanting to the right.
- These aesthetic transformations suggest an unprecedented sense of regularity to the script, likely influenced by Syriac.
- These changes eventually found their way into the earliest Qurʾanic scripts.
 |
| Qurʾanic palimpsest in Hijazi script (unknown provenance, seventh century). |
The First Seven Decades of Islam
The advent of Islam in the seventh century heralded a profound transformation in the development of Arabic calligraphy, shifting from a slow, incremental process to a period of rapid, deliberate change. Within a matter of decades, the Arabs laid the foundation for a distinguished tradition of calligraphy, intertwining the written and spoken word into the fabric of their civilization. This transformative phase was initially catalyzed by the imperative to record the Qurʾan, the holy scripture of Islam, and perhaps also by the logistical demands of conquest, necessitating efficient communication across vast distances.
Beyond practical considerations, this evolution of Arabic calligraphy was situated within the broader landscape of the Middle East, a region already saturated with the sacred edifices, artifacts, and locales of older religions, notably Christianity. Emerging from the distant peripheries of the civilized world, the early Muslims sought to propagate a faith that was sometimes perceived by their new subjects as a heterodox monotheistic movement.
One can envision the new rulers of the land standing at the base of prominent monuments in Syria, Iraq, or Iran, such as the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the grand cathedral of Edessa, or the majestic palace complex of the Sasanian emperors at Ctesiphon. Faced with predominantly Christian populations, the challenge lay in instilling a sense of enduring faith. A pivotal aspect of this endeavor was the cultivation of Arabic calligraphy and its public display.
Arabic calligraphy emerged as a potent tool for cultural expression and religious assertion, serving as a visual manifestation of Islamic identity and conviction. By adorning public spaces with beautifully crafted Arabic script, the early Muslims sought to convey the permanence and authenticity of their faith to local populations. Through intricate lettering and ornate designs, calligraphers imbued the written word with a sense of reverence and authority, elevating it to a sacred art form.
In essence, the development of Arabic calligraphy during this period was not merely a matter of aesthetic refinement but a deliberate assertion of religious and cultural identity. It represented a conscious effort to carve out a distinct visual language that reflected the values, beliefs, and aspirations of the burgeoning Islamic civilization, leaving an indelible mark on the artistic and intellectual landscape of the Middle East and beyond.
- The earliest dated Islamic texts include two utilitarian papyri and a rock inscription, all from around 22 AH (642–643 CE).
- A rock inscription from the region of Hegra, dated two years later, possibly references the assassination of the caliph ʿUmar at the end of 23 AH (November 644).
- These texts, along with other early dated rock inscriptions, primarily served utilitarian and invocatory purposes.
- While there is continuity with pre-Islamic scripts, noticeable differences include the introduction of diacritical dots and dashes to distinguish sounds noted by the same letter form.
- The short final letter "taʾ" is increasingly noted like a final "haʾ," facilitating grammatical distinctions.
- The insertion of the letter "alif" in the middle of words to record the long sound "a" is also observed.
- These innovations aimed to reduce ambiguities in the written language, enabling more accurate conveyance of information with less reliance on oral transmission.
- Scholars argue that these reforms were introduced in the early years of the caliphate to facilitate correspondence with distant troops.
- However, it's equally possible that some of these features existed in the script before the rise of Islam, based on contextual elements and scholarly debate.
- Due to the sparse nature of evidence, determining the exact timing of these orthographic reforms remains challenging.
The earliest Qurʾanic scripts have been called “Hijazi” in modern scholarship,based on the following description in the Fihrist (Index of Books) of the Baghdadibibliographer al‐Nadim, written in 987:The first Arabic scripts were the Meccan and after that the Madinan, then the Basran,then the Kufan. As regards the Meccan and Madinan, there is in its [sic] alifs a bendto the right hand side and an elevation of the vertical strokes; and in its form, thereis a slight inclination. (George 2010: 31; cf.; Déroche 2009: 109–117)
