•  States, akin to individuals, require suitable attire to assert their position in the world, portraying themselves as legitimate governing entities.
• In pre-modern eras, state legitimacy was established through a combination of practical leadership skills and perceived divine approval.
• This inquiry focuses on the Umayyad state's public image during the reigns of early caliphs Muʿawiya b. Abi Sufyan (661–680) and ʿAbd al‐Malik b. Marwan (685–705).
• The examination distinguishes between two forms of identity expression: public manifestations like coins, monumental architecture, and official documents bearing the caliphal seal, and more intimate expressions such as court poetry directed at local elites.
• While the analysis prioritizes coinage evidence, it begins with an overview of the broader historical context.

The Evolution of Imperial Governance: Byzantine Influence on Early Islamic Rule

As the early Muslims rose to power in the late antiquity world, they found themselves inheriting two well-established traditions of imperial governance. This essay explores the profound impact of the Byzantine tradition on the early Islamic state's visual culture and governance practices.

 Byzantine Imperial Tradition:

•   The power of the Byzantine emperor was upheld through a series of annual religious ceremonies held at holy sites.
•  The dissemination of the imperial image throughout the empire served to embody the ruler's presence and command adoration.
•  Byzantine rulers employed titulature and iconography infused with religious and imperial symbolism to reinforce their pivotal role in the well-being of their subjects.

Inheritance by the Early Muslims:

•   The rapid military conquests of the early Muslims from the 630s onwards led to their acquisition of the physical infrastructure and skilled labor of the Byzantine imperial system.
•   The material culture of the Umayyad era, according to scholar Terry Allen, was largely shaped by the resources inherited from late antiquity.

Umayyad Art as an Extension of Late Antiquity:

•    Terry Allen suggests that Umayyad art was essentially a branch of late antique art, constrained by the availability of existing resources and artistic practices.
•    The Umayyad era saw the continuation of Byzantine-inspired artistic traditions in monumental architecture, coinage, and other visual representations.

Emergence of Islamic Art:

•    The distinct Islamic artistic repertoire, separate from late antique influences, began to emerge with the succession of the Abbasids after the Umayyad era.
•    Islamic art gradually evolved to incorporate diverse cultural influences, marking a departure from the Byzantine legacy and paving the way for new artistic expressions.

The Byzantine tradition of imperial governance profoundly influenced the early Islamic state's visual culture and governance practices. While the Umayyad era witnessed the continuation of late antique artistic traditions, the subsequent Abbasid era heralded the emergence of a distinct Islamic artistic identity. Understanding these dynamics sheds light on the complex evolution of imperial governance and visual culture in the Islamic world.

• The early Muslims, as conquerors of the late antiquity world, inherited two sophisticated traditions of imperial governance, notably the Byzantine.
• The Byzantine tradition supported imperial power through annual religious ceremonies, widespread dissemination of the imperial image, and the use of religious and imperial symbolism in titulature and iconography.
• Upon their ascent to power in the Near East from the 630s onwards, the new rulers inherited the physical infrastructure and skilled labor of the Byzantine imperial system.
• According to Terry Allen, the material culture of the Umayyads was largely influenced by the resources inherited from late antiquity, positioning Umayyad art as an extension of late antique art.
• The emergence of a distinct Islamic artistic repertoire, separate from late antique influences, began with the Abbasid succession following the Umayyad era.

Yemen 

 The Rise of the Himyarites:

•   Under the rule of the Himyarites, Yemen flourished into a formidable kingdom, exerting influence across the Arabian Peninsula.
•   The Himyarite kings sought to expand their dominion by unifying South Arabia and extending their rule over regions like the Hijaz, Najd, and Hasa.
•   Control over these newly incorporated territories was delegated to the Kinda princes, loyal vassals of the Himyarite kings.
•   King Abikarib Asʿad (374–446) achieved remarkable feats, uniting Arabian tribes and establishing a kingdom that spanned the entire peninsula. However, this unity was short-lived and dissipated upon his death.
•   Despite the kingdom's eventual fragmentation, Abikarib's reign laid the groundwork for political consolidation and fostered a period of relative peace conducive to cultural exchange.

Capital Cities:

•   Zafar, located in the Yemeni highlands, served as the capital of the Himyarite kingdom. 
•   Formerly, the center of Sabaʾ was Marib, but it shifted to the highlands, specifically to Sanaa.
•   Zafar's antiquity is evident from mentions by ancient scholars like Pliny and Ptolemy, though its history remains shrouded in mystery.
•   The city was fortified with a double wall of stone ashlar, featuring nine gates and possibly four towers.
•  The fortress of Raidan, situated in Zafar, served as the seat of power for the rulers of Himyar, playing a pivotal role in the kingdom's governance and defense.

Jabal al‐ʿAud, bust of Athena (first century bce–first century ce).

The Rise of Monotheism in Ancient Yemen: Exploring Judaism and Christianity

Yemen's ancient history is marked by a fascinating transition towards monotheism, a shift that shaped the religious and cultural landscape of the region. In this essay, we delve into the emergence of Judaism and Christianity in ancient Yemen, examining their influence and impact during a pivotal period of socio-political change.

Monotheistic Shift under King Abikarib Asʿad:

Under the rule of King Abikarib Asʿad, Yemen witnessed a period of state unification, accompanied by notable conversions to Judaism. Scholars suggest that political factors may have influenced these conversions, reflecting the intertwining of religion and power dynamics in ancient societies. By the fifth century, dedicatory inscriptions to pagan deities had dwindled, giving way to monotheistic invocations such as "rahmanan" or "dhu samawi," symbolizing reverence for the "Lord of Heaven." Temples, once centers of polytheistic worship, fell into disuse, marking a significant cultural shift in Yemen's religious landscape.

Judaism's Influence in Ancient Yemen:

The influence of Judaism permeated various regions of ancient Yemen, with significant communities established in cities like Zafar, Marib, and Najran. As early as the fourth century, Zafar became a hub for Jewish life, hosting communities believed to have migrated from Palestine. Synagogues, known as "mkrb," dotted the Yemeni landscape, serving as centers of worship and community gatherings. The presence of Jewish communities among tribes like Madhi, Madhij, Murad, and Kinda in western Hadramaut underscored the widespread adoption of Judaism in the region.

Traces of Christianity:

While Judaism flourished, Christianity also left its mark on ancient Yemen. The city of Qaniʾ stands out as a potential site housing both Christian and Jewish structures. Archaeological findings reveal a synagogue dating back to the fourth century, alongside evidence suggesting the existence of a Christian building. These remnants shed light on the coexistence of multiple faiths in Yemen and their role in shaping its religious diversity.

Introduction to Monotheism in Yemen:

•   During the reign of King Abikarib Asʿad, Yemen underwent a phase of state unification, during which conversions to Judaism occurred, possibly influenced by political motives.
•   By the fifth century, dedicatory inscriptions to pagan gods ceased to exist, replaced by monotheistic inscriptions invoking titles such as "rahmanan" or "dhu samawi," signifying the "Lord of Heaven."
•   Temples fell into disuse by the end of the fourth century, their treasures either plundered or transferred to the state treasury.

Judaism in Yemen:

•   Zafar experienced the influence of Judaism as early as the fourth century, evidenced by the presence of a Jewish community in Bayt Hadir near Sanaa, believed to have migrated from Palestine.
•   Jewish communities were also established in Najran, Wusab, and regions surrounding Zafar, including the tribes of Madhi, Madhij, Murad, and Kinda in western Hadramaut.
•   Synagogues, known as "mkrb," were found in various Yemeni cities, including Zafar, Marib, Rayda, Naʿd, Najr, Dulaʿ, and Tanʿim. Najran likely had synagogues as well, though no archaeological evidence of Christian or Jewish cult buildings has been discovered in the region thus far.

Christianity's Presence:

 Qaniʾ stands out as potentially housing a Christian building, alongside a synagogue dating back to the latter half of the fourth century. The synagogue had a rectangular plan with a portico and supports for a flat roof, as per archaeological findings.

This period in Yemen's history reflects a significant shift towards monotheistic belief systems, with Judaism gaining prominence and Christianity making its presence felt, as evidenced by the archaeological remnants scattered across the region.

Exploring Ancient Relief Panels and Artistic Styles in Zafar, Yemen

The discovery of relief panels in Zafar, Yemen, offers a captivating glimpse into the artistic expressions of ancient civilizations. In this essay, we delve into the significance of these panels and the evolution of artistic styles during the late period.

Discovery of Relief Panels:

Archaeologists unearthed life-sized relief panels in Zafar, depicting notable figures in a flat, linear style. These panels, alongside other figures, unveil a vibrant artistic tradition that thrived in ancient Yemen. Notably, the late period witnessed the development of an independent style characterized by lively, expressive scenes, often depicting riders engaged in combat. The relief panels, adorned with intricate details, completely cover the surface, showcasing the mastery of ancient artisans.

Distinctive Artistic Styles:

An intriguing aspect of the relief panels is the preference for vine motifs, particularly the "inhabited scroll." One remarkable plaque in Zafar features a vine scroll composition, enclosed within itself, exhibiting softer outlines reminiscent of sixth-century Coptic art. This ornamentation serves as a precursor to the early Islamic Umayyad artistic idiom, hinting at the cultural exchanges and influences prevalent in the region.

Interpretation and Significance:

The presence of relief panels and intricate artistic styles in Zafar highlights the cultural richness and artistic sophistication of ancient Yemeni civilizations. These artifacts provide invaluable insights into the aesthetic preferences, societal norms, and religious beliefs of the era. Moreover, the evolution of artistic styles over time reflects the dynamic nature of artistic expression and its adaptation to changing cultural landscapes.

Zafar, plaque decorated with a vine scroll composition (sixth century ce).

Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur and Ethiopian Rule:

Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur's ascension to the throne under the support of the Ethiopian Negus in the early 6th century CE marked a pivotal moment in Yemen's history. Aligning with Byzantine interests, Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur engaged in military campaigns against Arabia and Mesopotamia, precipitating Yemen's involvement in the Rome-Byzantium versus Iran conflict.

Yusuf Asʾar Yathʾar and the Rise of Judaism:

Following Ethiopian rule, Yusuf Asʾar Yathʾar, also known as Dhu Nuwas, seized power and promoted Judaism as the state religion. His reign was marked by persecution against Ethiopian and Yemeni Christians, culminating in the destruction of churches and the tragic massacre in Najran in 523 CE.

Abraha and the Ethiopian-Persian Struggle:

The Ethiopian commander Abraha emerged as a significant figure in Yemen's political landscape, deposing the Christian ruler and establishing himself as the legitimate ruler of the Arabian Peninsula. His reign witnessed the construction of numerous churches, symbolizing his authority and influence.

Persian Influence and Islamic Conversion:

The rise of the Sasanian Shah, Khusraw Anushirwan, led to the end of Ethiopian rule in Yemen. With the arrival of Persian satraps, Yemen transitioned into a Persian province by 579 CE. The conversion of the last Persian satrap to Islam marked a pivotal moment in Yemen's religious landscape, leading to the construction of the first congregational mosque in Sanaa.

Cultural Transformation and Legacy:

The political upheavals and religious shifts in ancient Yemen transformed the cultural landscape of the region. From the conflicts between Christianity, Judaism, and Persian influence emerged a diverse tapestry of religious beliefs and traditions that continue to shape Yemen's identity to this day.

The historical events in ancient Yemen reflect the intricate interplay between religion and politics, shaping the region's identity and cultural legacy. From the reigns of Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur to the conversion to Islam under Persian rule, Yemen's rich history underscores the complexities of power struggles and religious dynamics in the ancient world.

• The cultural landscape of Yemen underwent significant changes during this period, leading to the decline and ruin of many ancient cities.
• The collapse of the dam between 575 and 600 dealt a final blow to Marib, causing it to lose its importance as a regional center.
• Zafar, the capital of the Himyarite kingdom, retained its significance until the reign of Abraha, serving as the political hub with its prominent Raydan Palace.
• Sanaa emerged as a pivotal city under Abraha's rule, intended to become a major Christian pilgrimage site.
• The renowned Ghumdan Castle, believed to be a masterpiece of Arab architecture, likely dates back to around 200 CE and became an enduring symbol in cultural memory.
• Descriptions of Ghumdan highlight its towering height, transparent alabaster roof, and opulent interior decorations, including colored stone inlay on the façades.
• Ghumdan's architectural features, such as bronze lions at the corners and terraces adorned with statues of ibexes, are reminiscent of similar structures described in historical accounts and depicted in rock paintings near Sanaa.

Saqaf/Khaulan painting of a castle (probably Ghumdan, second–third century )

Source :

A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru 

Exploring Maliha and Its Surroundings:

• Maliha, situated in the Emirate of Sharjah, has a rich history dating back to the third century BCE.
• During the first centuries CE, Maliha boasted large houses featuring interior courtyards and two palaces, indicative of its prosperity.
• Archaeological findings of sophisticated grave goods further attest to the affluence of Maliha's inhabitants.
• The city served as a hub for trade, with luxury items imported from regions like the Levant, Mesopotamia, Iran, and India, potentially exchanged for pearls.
• Around 200 CE, a formidable fortress measuring 60 × 65 meters was constructed in Maliha, featuring rectangular centrally placed and corner towers made of mud brick.
• The fortress's east gate, adorned with a projecting rectangular tower, highlighted its architectural sophistication.
• The courtyard was surrounded by rows of oblong rooms, utilized for storage, metalworking, and coin minting, showcasing Maliha's industrial capabilities.
• Living quarters, where luxury objects were discovered, were predominantly located on the ground floor of the north side.
• A second castle dating back to the third century CE, measuring 32 × 30 meters and featuring rectangular towers and an intricate façade, was enclosed by a fortification wall measuring 65 × 70 meters, adding to Maliha's architectural diversity and defensive capabilities.

Marib, Awam cemetery, tombstone (second–first century bce).

Trade and Fortifications in the Suhar Region:

The Northwest

• In the second century CE, the Nabataeans extended their influence southwards from Petra into the Hijaz region, encompassing oases like Midian, Taymaʾ, and Madaʾin Salih (Hegra).
• Nabataeans seized control of long-distance trade routes following the collapse of the Minaean kingdom, facilitating the transportation of valuable cargo from Asia and South Arabia to the Mediterranean.
• Strategic ports like Leuke Kome and Egra Kome supplemented land routes secured through way-stations, enhancing Nabataean trade networks.
• In 106 CE, the region was annexed to the Roman Empire, becoming part of the Provincia Arabia and establishing closer ties with Greater Syria and the Mediterranean.
• Taymaʾ remained a significant settlement throughout history, with ongoing archaeological exploration revealing a deserted palatial complex dating back to the third century CE.
• Qasr ar‐Radm, likely contemporaneous with this period, awaits further investigation to uncover its function.
• Nabataean architectural prowess is evident in the severe classical façades of funerary monuments at sites like Madaʾin Salih and Maghaʾir Shuʿayb, showcasing masterful stone masonry.
• Nabataean art features distinctive capitals with projecting corners and exquisitely painted pottery, exported as luxury goods to enhance the region's reputation as a center of artistic and commercial excellence.

Exploring Qaryat al-Faw:

• Flourishing under the rule of the Kinda during the first to third century CE, Qaryat al-Faw stood as a beacon of prosperity in south central Arabia.
• Despite the suzerainty of the Himyarite kings over the region, Qaryat al-Faw thrived as a vibrant city, attracting different tribes and fostering a unique form of governance akin to a merchant republic.
• The city's autonomy is exemplified by its ability to mint its own coins, symbolizing its economic and political independence.
• Positioned strategically along trade routes, Qaryat al-Faw became a crucial hub for the exchange of precious goods, serving as a gateway to the Levant, Egypt, and the Gulf region.
• The bustling commerce facilitated by Qaryat al-Faw not only enriched the city but also contributed to the broader economic networks of the Arabian Peninsula, shaping its cultural and commercial landscape during this period of history.

Madaʾin Salih (Hegra), façade of a tomb (first century ce)

• From approximately 300 BCE to the early first century CE, the Minaeans inhabited Qaryat al-Faw, leaving an indelible mark on the city's culture with influences from Maʿin, Yemen.
• Despite writing inscriptions in Old South Arabian, the spoken language in Qaryat al-Faw was North Arabian, reflecting the city's diverse linguistic heritage.
• Extensive excavations by the Saudi Arabian Department of Antiquities have unearthed a wealth of artifacts, showcasing the city's diverse material culture.
• Qaryat al-Faw boasted a high standard of living, evident from the discovery of bronze figures from Egypt and the Levant, glassware from Italy and Syria, as well as pottery from Parthia and Nabataea, along with significant quantities of textiles.
• Despite being mostly imports, these luxury goods attest to the availability of high-quality items enjoyed by the city's inhabitants.
• Fragments of bronze and large stone statues further highlight the artistic and cultural richness of Qaryat al-Faw.
• While the city was not fortified, extensive walls surrounded it, indicating a well-organized urban plan.
• Qaryat al-Faw featured distinct quarters, including areas for the royal palace, temple, and residential zones, suggesting a structured layout.
• The city's water supply was carefully managed through canals and cisterns, reflecting thoughtful urban planning.
• Nestled within an oasis of palms and verdant fields, Qaryat al-Faw was often described as a paradise, earning it the moniker "dhat jannan" (endowed with a garden).
• The extent to which Qaryat al-Faw's planning mirrored that of Maʿin to the south remains a subject of speculation, adding to the city's allure and mystique.

Despite inscriptions being penned in Old South Arabian, the spoken language in Qaryat al-Faw resonated with North Arabian dialects, highlighting the city's diverse linguistic heritage. Over the years, meticulous excavations conducted by the Saudi Arabian Department of Antiquities have unveiled a treasure trove of artifacts, offering a glimpse into the city's vibrant material culture.

Bronze figures from Egypt and the Levant, glassware from Italy and Syria, and pottery from Parthia and Nabataea are just a few examples of the diverse array of goods discovered. These artifacts bear witness to the high standard of living enjoyed by Qaryat's inhabitants, showcasing a penchant for luxury items imported from distant lands.

Although primarily imports, these luxury goods hint at the availability of opulent commodities within the city. Additionally, fragments of bronze and large stone statues have been unearthed, further enriching our understanding of Qaryat al-Faw's artistic and cultural heritage.

Despite lacking fortifications, extensive walls surrounded the city, indicating a well-organized urban plan. Individual quarters, including the royal palace, temple, and residential areas, were seamlessly integrated into the city's layout. The provision of water through canals and cisterns underscored the thoughtful urban planning that characterized Qaryat al-Faw.

Nestled amidst an oasis of palms and verdant fields, Qaryat exuded an aura of serenity and abundance, earning it the moniker "dhat jannan" (endowed with a garden). However, the extent to which its planning mirrored that of Maʿin to the south remains a captivating mystery, adding to the allure of this ancient city.

• Five temples, each dedicated to different deities and spanning various periods, have been unearthed in Qaryat al-Faw.
• The Temple of Wadd, constructed of well-dressed limestone ashlars, formed the centerpiece of the city alongside the fortified suq and palace.
• The suq, resembling a fortified castle, featured a rectangular plan with corner and interval towers, encompassing rows of shops along its long sides and boasting amenities like a deep well and drainage channel.
• The palace complex comprised two rectangular buildings, one larger than the other, each supported by stone columns and featuring reception or assembly rooms adorned with frescoes depicting banquet scenes and nobles of Qaryat.
• Wall paintings depicting multistoried tower houses with ibex figures at the corners suggest that Qaryat's architecture may have resembled that of Yemen, with multiple stories above stone foundations, adorned with decorative patterns.
• Household items crafted from silver, gilded silver, bronze, glass, and fine ceramics reflect the affluence of Qaryat's residents, while burial chambers for kings and nobility featured stone-built structures with mausoleums or towers.
• Archaeological discoveries include the upper part of a limestone figure near the tomb of King Muʿawiya b. Rabiʾa, possibly part of a mausoleum, and a bronze funerary couch belonging to Saʿd ibn Malik, showcasing exquisite Hellenistic artistry with a bust of Artemis placed on a gilded fulcrum ending in an elegant horse's head.
• Around 300 CE, the Kinda tribe vacated the site to settle in Hadramaut, leading to the complete abandonment of Qaryat al-Faw shortly thereafter.

Yemen 

Yemen's Ancient Transformations: Marib and the Rise of the Himyarites

In the annals of ancient history, Yemen emerges as a crucible of cultural exchange and political upheaval. At the turn of the millennium, the Roman expedition to Marib, under the command of Aelius Gallus, marked a significant juncture. This essay explores the repercussions of this expedition, the transformation of trade routes, and the emergence of the Himyarite kingdom in Yemen.

The Roman Expedition to Marib:

In 26–25 BCE, Aelius Gallus, acting on the orders of Augustus, ventured to Marib, Yemen. Despite failing to conquer the city, Gallus's destruction of the dam had profound implications. It granted the Romans access to the sea route and control over Red Sea trade, reshaping the commercial landscape of the region.

Shifts in Trade Routes:

The consequences of Gallus's expedition reverberated throughout Yemen. With the Romans now controlling the sea route, the once-vibrant land-based trade between Hadramaut and the Mediterranean waned. Caravan cities, integral to this trade network, faced decline as commerce shifted towards maritime routes.

The Rise of the Himyarites:

Amidst these changes, a new political force emerged in Yemen. The Himyarite tribes of the highlands, recognizing the evolving geopolitical dynamics, forged alliances and consolidated their power. This union culminated in the formation of a new kingdom, marking a significant chapter in Yemen's history.

The Roman expedition to Marib and the subsequent rise of the Himyarites signify pivotal moments in Yemen's ancient history. These events not only transformed trade routes and commerce but also reshaped the political landscape of the region. As we delve into Yemen's past, we uncover the intricate tapestry of transformations that have shaped its destiny, highlighting the enduring legacy of its ancient civilizations.

• In 26–25 BCE, Aelius Gallus, the Roman prefect of Egypt, launched an expedition to Marib, Yemen, under the orders of Augustus. Although he failed to conquer Marib, his destruction of the dam was a significant event.
• The repercussions were profound, as the Romans now had knowledge of the sea route and gained control over Red Sea trade, establishing direct connections with ports in South Arabia and India.
• Consequently, the land-based trade routes between Hadramaut and the Mediterranean dwindled, leading to the decline of caravan cities.
• Around the turn of the era, a new political power emerged in Yemen as the Himyarite tribes of the highlands unified to form a new kingdom.
• This union culminated in the consolidation of the Sabaean and Himyarite kingdoms, resulting in the emergence of a unified kingdom that eventually encompassed all regions of Yemen.

Source :
A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru 

Settlement of the Arabian Peninsula:

• The Arabian Peninsula has a long history of settlement dating back to ancient times.
• Its strategic geographical location facilitated connections with India, Asia, and Africa, as well as proximity to the Mediterranean world and Mesopotamia.
• The discovery of monsoon winds in the second century BCE further enhanced trade routes and connections.
• The domestication of the one-humped camel in the eleventh century BCE revolutionized travel across arid terrains.
• Valuable commodities like incense, myrrh, and spices such as cinnamon, aloes, and cassia were crucial trade items in the ancient world.
• Regions like Hadramaut, Dhofar, Soqotra, and Somalia were known for producing sought-after goods like incense and myrrh.

The Arabian Peninsula served as a pivotal intermediary for the transfer of goods.

Cultural Landscape of the Arabian Peninsula:

• The Arabian Peninsula was integral to the cultural dynamics of the Near East in antiquity.
• The cultural landscape can be categorized into three main zones:
•   The east coast, influenced by Mesopotamian culture and later Parthian and Sasanian rule, particularly due to its proximity to the Arabian Gulf.
•  The northwest, which looked towards the Levant and the Mediterranean for cultural influences.
•  Yemen in the southwest, which developed its own independent culture that also influenced central regions of the peninsula.

Al‐ʿUla, statue, probably of a king of the dynasty of Lihyan

First Millennium bce

Heyday of Arabian High Cultures:

• The first millennium BCE marked the pinnacle of Arabian high cultures.
• Taymaʾ, situated in the northwest, served as a crucial hub on the main trade route connecting southern Arabia to Syria, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.
• Taymaʾ had established connections in long-distance trade as early as the second millennium BCE and boasted abundant water resources and flourishing agriculture.

Al-Khurayba (Dedan):

• Al-Khurayba, also known as Dedan, was situated along the incense route within the well-watered Wadi al-Qura.
• It served as the capital city of the Lihyan from the sixth to the first century BCE.
• The city's temple, located at the center of the settlement, featured a rectangular ground plan measuring 16 × 13.2 meters, with a terrace on the north side.
• The temple's roof was supported by four rectangular stone pillars.
• Inside and outside the temple, oversized statues of the kings of Lihyan were erected as votive offerings.

In the ancient landscapes of the Arabian Peninsula, thriving city cultures emerged, particularly in the northeast and southwest regions, during the pre-Christian centuries. Cities like Thaj, possibly synonymous with the prosperous Gerrha, endured through multiple periods until the fourth century CE, boasting fortified walls and hosting valuable Hellenistic-influenced artifacts amidst bustling trade routes. Yet, mysteries linger, such as the unexplored ruins of ʿAin Jawan, hinting at untold stories waiting to be uncovered. Meanwhile, in the fertile lands of southwest Arabia, Marib, Jauf, and Hadramaut nurtured high cultures of genuine creativity. Marib, in particular, stood as the nucleus of the powerful Sabaean kingdom, its influence reaching distant lands like Ethiopia, celebrated for its remarkable dam. Amidst linguistic diversity, the oasis cities formed a cohesive cultural tapestry, bound by shared scripts and trade networks. Marvels like Marib's ancient dam and the intricate water management systems underscored the region's agricultural prosperity, sustaining vibrant communities for millennia. As excavations continue to unveil the secrets of these ancient civilizations, the allure of Arabia's rich past remains as captivating as ever.

Northeastern City Cultures:

• The pre-Christian centuries witnessed flourishing city cultures in the northeast.
• Thaj, potentially identified with the prosperous city of Gerrha, experienced two periods of occupation and persisted until the fourth century CE.
• This expansive city, fortified with stone walls, stood at the crossroads of east-west trade routes and boasted valuable art objects and artifacts with a Hellenistic influence.
• Despite its significance, ʿAin Jawan, the largest ruin of this period in Saudi Arabia, remains largely unexplored.

High Cultures in Southwest Arabia:

• In Yemen, Marib, the Jauf, and Hadramaut gave rise to high cultures characterized by genuine creativity.
• Marib served as the center of the dominant Sabaean kingdom, whose cultural influence extended as far as Ethiopia, renowned for its famous dam.
• During the early seventh century BCE, the great Mukarrib of Sabaʾ, Karibʾil Watar, established a united kingdom spanning from Najran in the north to the Gulf of Aden in the south and reaching as far as Hadramaut to the east.
• Other kingdoms emerged in southwestern Arabia, including Qataban with Timnaʾ as its capital, Hadramaut with Shabwa as its capital, Ausan with the city of Miswar, and the kingdom of the Minaeans with Maʿin as its city.
• Despite linguistic variations, the oasis cities formed a cultural unit, notably utilizing the "Sabaean" script in both hieratic and cursive forms, particularly from the seventh century BCE onwards.
• Marib, along with Shabwa and Timna, was situated on the incense route, facilitating trade connections with Maʿin and Najran to the north.
• Sophisticated water management techniques enabled intensive agriculture over millennia, with Marib's famous dam, constructed in the sixth century BCE and undergoing repairs in the fifth and sixth centuries CE, being a notable example.
• The Wadi Dhana witnessed constructions dating back to the second millennium BCE, indicative of the region's ancient heritage.
• Oases to the north and south, spanning an area of 14,900 hectares, were cultivated using floodwater, contributing to the region's agricultural prosperity.

In the classical period of the Sabaean civilization, their art was distinguished by a remarkable level of abstraction, particularly evident in the design of their temple structures featuring porticoes. These temples, adorned with distinctive ibex friezes and intricately carved pillars with capitals, exemplified precision and beauty. An earlier temple within the city, boasting a portico supported by eight pillars, underwent a transformation in the eleventh century CE to become the mosque of Solomon, showcasing the enduring influence of Sabaean architecture. Throughout the Sabaean region, temples typically took the form of courtyard complexes, featuring inner courtyards surrounded by porticoes. While enclosed hypostyle temples were prevalent in the Jauf region, rectangular temples divided into two rows with three or four supports were common in areas like Maʿin and Hadramaut. Notably, temples in Hadramaut featured a distinctive bent entrance with side steps, adding to the architectural diversity of the region. This rich architectural heritage, with its blend of abstraction and precision, not only served as centers of worship but also potentially influenced later mosque architecture, highlighting the lasting impact of the Sabaean civilization on the region's cultural landscape.

Sabaean Temple Architecture:

• Characterized by extreme abstraction and precision during its classical period.
• Temple buildings typically featured a portico leading to the main structure.
• Distinctive ibex friezes adorned the temples, showcasing remarkable craftsmanship and beauty.
• Pillars with intricately carved capitals were a common feature, adding to the aesthetic appeal.
• An earlier temple within the city was repurposed in the eleventh century CE as the mosque of Solomon, demonstrating the enduring influence of Sabaean architecture.
• Temples in the Sabaean region were predominantly courtyard complexes, with inner courtyards surrounded by porticoes.
• Enclosed hypostyle temples were prevalent in the Jauf region, while rectangular temples divided into two rows with three or four supports were common in areas like Maʿin and Hadramaut.
• Temples in Hadramaut featured a distinctive bent entrance with side steps, contributing to the architectural diversity of the region.
• The architectural legacy of the Sabaeans potentially influenced later mosque architecture, underscoring their lasting impact on the cultural landscape of the region.

Shabwa, the Royal Palace (third century ce)

In addition to the insights gained from temple architecture, it's evident that the Sabaean period introduced a new style of housing, reminiscent of the classical Yemeni tower house. This innovative architecture featured sturdy stone foundation courses supporting superstructures made of wood and clay. Notably, the era also witnessed the creation of portrait heads crafted from marble and alabaster, often set into grave stelai or block-like figures. These sculptures, whether depicting figures in sitting or standing positions, showcased remarkable technical skill and a keen interest in sculptural forms. Additionally, the period saw the production of stone or bronze statues crafted as votive offerings to the deities, underscoring the depth of religious and artistic expression prevalent during this time.

Artistic Innovations in the Sabaean Period:

• Introduction of a new house type resembling the classical Yemeni tower house.
• Notable features include stone foundation courses supporting superstructures made of wood and clay.
• Portrait heads crafted from marble and alabaster were common, often set into grave stelai or block-like figures.
• Sculptures depicted figures in sitting or standing positions, showcasing technical skill and a fascination with sculptural forms.
• Production of stone or bronze statues as votive gifts for deities, highlighting religious and artistic expression during the period.

Source :
A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru 

The intrinsic bond between architectural design, climatic conditions, and socio-cultural norms has historically fostered a sense of continuity in domestic architecture. However, in contemporary times, we find ourselves grappling with a rapid erosion of traditional building practices, an influx of foreign influences, and a barrage of disruptive forces. This transformation has sparked a heated discourse, with both advocates and detractors of the design professions leveling accusations of willful disregard for the past and indifference to the needs of users.

Amidst this debate, informal settlements emerge as compelling case studies, offering a lens through which to explore questions of identity. These settlements, born out of spontaneous and organic evolution, provide a stark contrast to formal urban planning processes. Devoid of regulatory constraints and preconceived design templates imposed from external sources, they offer a canvas upon which the complexities of identity formation are laid bare.

By examining the housing patterns within informal settlements, we gain insight into the intricate interplay between architecture, culture, and human experience. Here, the built environment serves as a tangible manifestation of community values, aspirations, and adaptability. It is within these humble abodes, crafted with ingenuity and resourcefulness, that the essence of identity finds its most authentic expression.

In navigating the challenges posed by rapid urbanization and globalization, architects and urban planners must heed the lessons offered by informal settlements. Rather than imposing top-down solutions, there is a pressing need to engage with local communities, harnessing their knowledge and expertise to co-create sustainable and culturally resonant built environments. Only by embracing the rich diversity of human experience can we hope to foster a built environment that is inclusive, resilient, and reflective of our collective identity.

During the post-colonial era, which commenced in the mid-1950s, Arab nations initiated national planning endeavors. These efforts often entailed the formulation and execution of multi-sectoral plans spanning five-year intervals. However, following the significant oil discoveries of 1973, oil-rich countries embarked on ambitious development initiatives. These initiatives attracted a diverse array of professionals, technicians, skilled workers, and laborers from neighboring nations and beyond, resulting in extensive regional labor movements and economic interdependencies.

The influx of capital into urban real estate from the emergent middle class, eager to invest their newfound wealth, fueled a dramatic surge in land values and construction costs. This exponential rise in property values and building expenses precipitated one of the most severe inflationary periods witnessed in urban real estate history. Between 1975 and 1982, land values skyrocketed by a factor of ten, while construction costs soared fivefold. Meanwhile, local incomes experienced only modest growth, increasing by a factor of two or three.

The prevailing development landscape was characterized by speculative ventures and a lack of regulatory oversight. This laissez-faire approach to development facilitated unchecked speculation and contributed to an environment of unrestrained growth. The repercussions of this speculative fervor reverberated throughout the urban fabric, profoundly impacting the socioeconomic dynamics of the region.

The rapid expansion of urban areas has surpassed the capacity of municipalities to effectively manage growth. Struggling to keep pace, local authorities find themselves in a precarious position, hesitant to impose taxes or release vacant land for development, yet lacking the means to exert meaningful control over peripheral expansion. This vacuum has allowed small-scale entrepreneurs and contractors to capitalize on the burgeoning demand for housing among the burgeoning middle class, thereby shaping the dynamics of the real estate market.

The consequence of this unchecked growth is twofold: the proliferation of informal settlements through leapfrogging and fringe development, and the accelerated densification of existing settlements. Informal settlements, while often viewed unfavorably, have captured the attention of planners, engineers, and architects due to their dynamic nature and relatively sturdy structures. Yet, there remains a pervasive ambivalence regarding the architectural quality of these buildings, a topic deserving of greater scrutiny given their increasing prominence within urban landscapes.

As informal settlements continue to assert their presence spatially and visually, it becomes imperative to delve into the characteristics of this emergent architectural typology. By examining the origins of its design vocabulary and identifying the factors driving its evolution, we can gain valuable insights into the complex interplay between urbanization, socio-economic dynamics, and architectural form. Such an exploration is essential for informing future interventions aimed at addressing the challenges posed by informal settlements and fostering more equitable and sustainable urban development.

In informal settlements, while there may be surface-level resemblances to historical urban fabrics, the underlying patterns diverge significantly. Here, the urban layout is characterized by a dual grid system that blends vehicular and pedestrian circulation within a modified rectilinear framework. This hierarchical grid serves as the fundamental structural framework, organizing the space into cohesive clusters of streets and buildings, each delineating distinct social spaces within the community.

The alignment and accessibility of these spaces are dictated by local conditions and prominent landmarks, such as mosques and souks, which often serve as focal points for vehicular access. Open spaces, once dominated by traditional courtyards, now reflect contemporary notions of private and social domains. They promote community interaction by facilitating movement along streets and adhering to established social norms governing public spaces.

Despite the apparent anticipation of vehicular traffic and infrastructure needs within this urban pattern, the lack of planned provisions for utilities and communal amenities exacerbates existing challenges. As densities rapidly escalate, often reaching levels comparable to overcrowded traditional quarters within a decade, the strain on resources becomes increasingly apparent. In some instances, densities have surged from less than 400 persons per hectare to 800 or even 1,000, equivalent to 400 persons per acre, exacerbating congestion and underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive planning and infrastructure development.

[The models]

The design professions have wielded significant influence in shaping the emerging popular architecture, albeit indirectly. Beyond their architectural significance, the design and aesthetics of both private constructions and public housing projects reflect a modern image that garners widespread admiration.

Workers take pride in their ability to work with innovative materials and replicate novel decorations, such as motifs, textures, and colors, rather than solely focusing on the final product's quality. However, this shift has led to a loss of traditional skills as craftsmen adapt to the demands of modern construction techniques.

Innovations in design and decoration, often introduced by wealthier segments of society or from abroad, are embraced and modified to suit the lifestyles of the target clientele. This constant interplay between users/clients and builders/designers fosters a dynamic exchange, resulting in the evolution of the new popular architecture to meet the diverse needs and preferences of its inhabitants.

[The architectural expression] 

Misinterpretations of recognizable traditional building configurations have led many professionals, especially those from Western backgrounds, to mistakenly view contemporary popular architecture as a revitalized iteration of traditional models. However, in reality, the opposite holds true. There exists a palpable aversion to anything deemed old-fashioned, coupled with an irresistible allure towards the new, regardless of its suitability or cost.

Modern popular expectations and lifestyles no longer align with traditional norms. There's a clear preference for urban, functional, and modern aesthetics, rejecting any association with rural elements such as courtyards, mud materials, or barn-like appointments. Despite this rejection, certain functions persist, albeit in unconventional ways; for instance, ovens may be relocated to terraces, goats housed in bedrooms, or poultry penned on balconies or in bathrooms.

While some functionally obsolete elements are discarded without hesitation, others undergo incongruous adaptations to retain their symbolic significance. This complex interplay between modern aspirations and traditional remnants underscores the evolving nature of popular architecture, where pragmatic needs often clash with deeply ingrained cultural symbolism.

The city of Venice, in northeastern Italy, was founded in the seventh century.

Venice and the Mamluks

The Mamluk empire (1250–1517) was a military-controlled sultanate that ruled lands in present-day Egypt and Syria.
Trade between the Venetians and Mamluks began as early as the thirteenth century and profited both empires, strengthening their diplomatic ties.
Trade led to the exchange of materials and goods as well as artistic styles and techniques. Artists in Syria and Egypt produced works of exquisite craftsmanship in glass, metal, silk, and wood to be traded with Europe, most often through the Venetians.
The Venetians particularly valued the opulence and sophistication of Mamluk enameled glassware and began producing local imitations.

Some of the buildings erected in Venice during the height of this trade relationship also reflected Mamluk style, which the Venetians saw as luxurious and exotic .
The Mamluks and Venetians remained advantageous trading partners until Ottoman forces conquered the Mamluks in 1516–17. Trade between the former Mamluk lands and Venice continued, but under the auspices of Ottoman rule.

 

 

Facade of the Doge’s Palace, Venice, Italy, 1340–1510

Mosque of Altinbugha al-Maridani, Cairo, Egypt, 1339–40

Note similarities in the style of the arcades and crenellations to those in the Doge’s Palace above.

Venice as rendered by Ottoman admiral and cartographer Piri Reis in the early 16th century. Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz

Reception of the Venetian Ambassadors in Damascus, 1511; Venice; oil on canvas, 46½ x 80 in. (118 x 203 cm); Musée du Louvre, Paris

 One would enquire in vain for the masters who brought this system to its flowering or those
who later opened up new ways for its development. This art is totally anonymous and it
would contradict the artist’s noblest charge, which was the liberation of the spirit from the
transitoriness of worldly ties.

Dish With epigraphic decoration. The Kufic inscription reads: ‘Science has first a bitter taste, but at the end it tastes sweeter than honey’

Consistency and Variety

Islamic art has a recognisable aesthetic signature that somehow manages to express itself across an entire range of productions. The ‘language’ of this art, once established, was readily assimilated by each of the different nations and ethnicities that were brought within the Islamic sphere.

Assimilated and built upon, because every region, at every period, produced its own versions of this super-national style. This extraordinary consistency of styles and artistic preferences in the Islamic world clearly derive from a deeper, social consistency.

Muslims have always held to the same basic system of belief, with its customary forms of religious observation, and all, despite national and ethnic differences, have identified themselves as Muslim first and foremost. Historically, this strong sense of identity and continuity has tended towards a high degree of social, and artistic, conservatism.

As a result many forms and artistic concepts remained unchanged over the centuries. on the other hand, Islamic art has constantly demonstrated its capacity for the creative reinterpretation of accepted forms. Much of the art of Islam, whether in architecture, ceramics, textiles or books, is the art of decoration—which is to say, of transformation.

The aim, however, is never merely to ornament, but rather to transfigure. Essentially, this is a reflection of the Islamic preoccupation with the transitory nature of being. Substantial structures and objects are made to appear less substantial, materials are de-materialised.

The vast edifices of mosques are transformed into lightness and pattern; the decorated pages of a Qur’¯an can become windows onto the infinite. Perhaps most importantly, the Word, expressed in endless calligraphic variations, always conveys the impression that it is more enduring than the objects on which it is inscribed.

Image only for reference, not an actual representation on early Islamic Art