The Material Culture of Pre‐ and Early Islamic Arabia // Fourth Centuries ce

Yemen 

 The Rise of the Himyarites:

•   Under the rule of the Himyarites, Yemen flourished into a formidable kingdom, exerting influence across the Arabian Peninsula.
•   The Himyarite kings sought to expand their dominion by unifying South Arabia and extending their rule over regions like the Hijaz, Najd, and Hasa.
•   Control over these newly incorporated territories was delegated to the Kinda princes, loyal vassals of the Himyarite kings.
•   King Abikarib Asʿad (374–446) achieved remarkable feats, uniting Arabian tribes and establishing a kingdom that spanned the entire peninsula. However, this unity was short-lived and dissipated upon his death.
•   Despite the kingdom's eventual fragmentation, Abikarib's reign laid the groundwork for political consolidation and fostered a period of relative peace conducive to cultural exchange.

Capital Cities:

•   Zafar, located in the Yemeni highlands, served as the capital of the Himyarite kingdom. 
•   Formerly, the center of Sabaʾ was Marib, but it shifted to the highlands, specifically to Sanaa.
•   Zafar's antiquity is evident from mentions by ancient scholars like Pliny and Ptolemy, though its history remains shrouded in mystery.
•   The city was fortified with a double wall of stone ashlar, featuring nine gates and possibly four towers.
•  The fortress of Raidan, situated in Zafar, served as the seat of power for the rulers of Himyar, playing a pivotal role in the kingdom's governance and defense.

Jabal al‐ʿAud, bust of Athena (first century bce–first century ce).

The Rise of Monotheism in Ancient Yemen: Exploring Judaism and Christianity

Yemen's ancient history is marked by a fascinating transition towards monotheism, a shift that shaped the religious and cultural landscape of the region. In this essay, we delve into the emergence of Judaism and Christianity in ancient Yemen, examining their influence and impact during a pivotal period of socio-political change.

Monotheistic Shift under King Abikarib Asʿad:

Under the rule of King Abikarib Asʿad, Yemen witnessed a period of state unification, accompanied by notable conversions to Judaism. Scholars suggest that political factors may have influenced these conversions, reflecting the intertwining of religion and power dynamics in ancient societies. By the fifth century, dedicatory inscriptions to pagan deities had dwindled, giving way to monotheistic invocations such as "rahmanan" or "dhu samawi," symbolizing reverence for the "Lord of Heaven." Temples, once centers of polytheistic worship, fell into disuse, marking a significant cultural shift in Yemen's religious landscape.

Judaism's Influence in Ancient Yemen:

The influence of Judaism permeated various regions of ancient Yemen, with significant communities established in cities like Zafar, Marib, and Najran. As early as the fourth century, Zafar became a hub for Jewish life, hosting communities believed to have migrated from Palestine. Synagogues, known as "mkrb," dotted the Yemeni landscape, serving as centers of worship and community gatherings. The presence of Jewish communities among tribes like Madhi, Madhij, Murad, and Kinda in western Hadramaut underscored the widespread adoption of Judaism in the region.

Traces of Christianity:

While Judaism flourished, Christianity also left its mark on ancient Yemen. The city of Qaniʾ stands out as a potential site housing both Christian and Jewish structures. Archaeological findings reveal a synagogue dating back to the fourth century, alongside evidence suggesting the existence of a Christian building. These remnants shed light on the coexistence of multiple faiths in Yemen and their role in shaping its religious diversity.

Introduction to Monotheism in Yemen:

•   During the reign of King Abikarib Asʿad, Yemen underwent a phase of state unification, during which conversions to Judaism occurred, possibly influenced by political motives.
•   By the fifth century, dedicatory inscriptions to pagan gods ceased to exist, replaced by monotheistic inscriptions invoking titles such as "rahmanan" or "dhu samawi," signifying the "Lord of Heaven."
•   Temples fell into disuse by the end of the fourth century, their treasures either plundered or transferred to the state treasury.

Judaism in Yemen:

•   Zafar experienced the influence of Judaism as early as the fourth century, evidenced by the presence of a Jewish community in Bayt Hadir near Sanaa, believed to have migrated from Palestine.
•   Jewish communities were also established in Najran, Wusab, and regions surrounding Zafar, including the tribes of Madhi, Madhij, Murad, and Kinda in western Hadramaut.
•   Synagogues, known as "mkrb," were found in various Yemeni cities, including Zafar, Marib, Rayda, Naʿd, Najr, Dulaʿ, and Tanʿim. Najran likely had synagogues as well, though no archaeological evidence of Christian or Jewish cult buildings has been discovered in the region thus far.

Christianity's Presence:

 Qaniʾ stands out as potentially housing a Christian building, alongside a synagogue dating back to the latter half of the fourth century. The synagogue had a rectangular plan with a portico and supports for a flat roof, as per archaeological findings.

This period in Yemen's history reflects a significant shift towards monotheistic belief systems, with Judaism gaining prominence and Christianity making its presence felt, as evidenced by the archaeological remnants scattered across the region.

Exploring Ancient Relief Panels and Artistic Styles in Zafar, Yemen

The discovery of relief panels in Zafar, Yemen, offers a captivating glimpse into the artistic expressions of ancient civilizations. In this essay, we delve into the significance of these panels and the evolution of artistic styles during the late period.

Discovery of Relief Panels:

Archaeologists unearthed life-sized relief panels in Zafar, depicting notable figures in a flat, linear style. These panels, alongside other figures, unveil a vibrant artistic tradition that thrived in ancient Yemen. Notably, the late period witnessed the development of an independent style characterized by lively, expressive scenes, often depicting riders engaged in combat. The relief panels, adorned with intricate details, completely cover the surface, showcasing the mastery of ancient artisans.

Distinctive Artistic Styles:

An intriguing aspect of the relief panels is the preference for vine motifs, particularly the "inhabited scroll." One remarkable plaque in Zafar features a vine scroll composition, enclosed within itself, exhibiting softer outlines reminiscent of sixth-century Coptic art. This ornamentation serves as a precursor to the early Islamic Umayyad artistic idiom, hinting at the cultural exchanges and influences prevalent in the region.

Interpretation and Significance:

The presence of relief panels and intricate artistic styles in Zafar highlights the cultural richness and artistic sophistication of ancient Yemeni civilizations. These artifacts provide invaluable insights into the aesthetic preferences, societal norms, and religious beliefs of the era. Moreover, the evolution of artistic styles over time reflects the dynamic nature of artistic expression and its adaptation to changing cultural landscapes.

Zafar, plaque decorated with a vine scroll composition (sixth century ce).

Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur and Ethiopian Rule:

Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur's ascension to the throne under the support of the Ethiopian Negus in the early 6th century CE marked a pivotal moment in Yemen's history. Aligning with Byzantine interests, Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur engaged in military campaigns against Arabia and Mesopotamia, precipitating Yemen's involvement in the Rome-Byzantium versus Iran conflict.

Yusuf Asʾar Yathʾar and the Rise of Judaism:

Following Ethiopian rule, Yusuf Asʾar Yathʾar, also known as Dhu Nuwas, seized power and promoted Judaism as the state religion. His reign was marked by persecution against Ethiopian and Yemeni Christians, culminating in the destruction of churches and the tragic massacre in Najran in 523 CE.

Abraha and the Ethiopian-Persian Struggle:

The Ethiopian commander Abraha emerged as a significant figure in Yemen's political landscape, deposing the Christian ruler and establishing himself as the legitimate ruler of the Arabian Peninsula. His reign witnessed the construction of numerous churches, symbolizing his authority and influence.

Persian Influence and Islamic Conversion:

The rise of the Sasanian Shah, Khusraw Anushirwan, led to the end of Ethiopian rule in Yemen. With the arrival of Persian satraps, Yemen transitioned into a Persian province by 579 CE. The conversion of the last Persian satrap to Islam marked a pivotal moment in Yemen's religious landscape, leading to the construction of the first congregational mosque in Sanaa.

Cultural Transformation and Legacy:

The political upheavals and religious shifts in ancient Yemen transformed the cultural landscape of the region. From the conflicts between Christianity, Judaism, and Persian influence emerged a diverse tapestry of religious beliefs and traditions that continue to shape Yemen's identity to this day.

The historical events in ancient Yemen reflect the intricate interplay between religion and politics, shaping the region's identity and cultural legacy. From the reigns of Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur to the conversion to Islam under Persian rule, Yemen's rich history underscores the complexities of power struggles and religious dynamics in the ancient world.

• The cultural landscape of Yemen underwent significant changes during this period, leading to the decline and ruin of many ancient cities.
• The collapse of the dam between 575 and 600 dealt a final blow to Marib, causing it to lose its importance as a regional center.
• Zafar, the capital of the Himyarite kingdom, retained its significance until the reign of Abraha, serving as the political hub with its prominent Raydan Palace.
• Sanaa emerged as a pivotal city under Abraha's rule, intended to become a major Christian pilgrimage site.
• The renowned Ghumdan Castle, believed to be a masterpiece of Arab architecture, likely dates back to around 200 CE and became an enduring symbol in cultural memory.
• Descriptions of Ghumdan highlight its towering height, transparent alabaster roof, and opulent interior decorations, including colored stone inlay on the façades.
• Ghumdan's architectural features, such as bronze lions at the corners and terraces adorned with statues of ibexes, are reminiscent of similar structures described in historical accounts and depicted in rock paintings near Sanaa.

Saqaf/Khaulan painting of a castle (probably Ghumdan, second–third century )

Source :

A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru