Exploring Maliha and Its Surroundings:
- Maliha, situated in the Emirate of Sharjah, has a rich history dating back to the third century BCE.
- During the first centuries CE, Maliha boasted large houses featuring interior courtyards and two palaces, indicative of its prosperity.
- Archaeological findings of sophisticated grave goods further attest to the affluence of Maliha's inhabitants.
- The city served as a hub for trade, with luxury items imported from regions like the Levant, Mesopotamia, Iran, and India, potentially exchanged for pearls.
- Around 200 CE, a formidable fortress measuring 60 × 65 meters was constructed in Maliha, featuring rectangular centrally placed and corner towers made of mud brick.
- The fortress's east gate, adorned with a projecting rectangular tower, highlighted its architectural sophistication.
- The courtyard was surrounded by rows of oblong rooms, utilized for storage, metalworking, and coin minting, showcasing Maliha's industrial capabilities.
- Living quarters, where luxury objects were discovered, were predominantly located on the ground floor of the north side.
- A second castle dating back to the third century CE, measuring 32 × 30 meters and featuring rectangular towers and an intricate façade, was enclosed by a fortification wall measuring 65 × 70 meters, adding to Maliha's architectural diversity and defensive capabilities.
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| Marib, Awam cemetery, tombstone (second–first century bce). |
Trade and Fortifications in the Suhar Region:
- The port of Suhar, active in Indian Ocean trade since the second to third century, facilitated the import of goods from India, contributing to the region's economic prosperity.
- Around 200 to 250 CE, a smaller fortress was constructed in El-Dur, a significant settlement in the area.
- Built of coral, the fortress had an almost square ground plan measuring 22 × 25 meters, featuring rounded corner towers.
- Internally, it comprised a roughly square construction with two rooms, showcasing modest yet functional architecture.
- Influenced possibly by Parthian and Sasanian architecture, such fortresses likely served as residences for the elite, reflecting the societal structure of the time.
- Similar fortresses, including the one in Bahrain dating to the first half of the third century CE, attest to this architectural trend.
- El-Dur thrived as a wealthy center, evidenced by discoveries of Roman glass, Parthian glazed pottery, terra sigillata pottery, and Indian red polished ware.
- Dibba hosted a significant market, further highlighting the region's economic activity.
- However, economic decline set in during the third century, possibly due to the expansionist policies of Sasanian ruler Ardashir (224–241), leading to a decrease in settlements in the area.
In the heart of the Arabian Peninsula lies the historic port of Suhar, a bustling hub that has thrived on Indian Ocean trade since the second to third century. Its strategic location facilitated the import of goods from India, enriching the region's economy and cultural landscape.During this era of maritime prosperity, the nearby settlement of El-Dur witnessed the construction of a smaller fortress, signaling the importance of fortifications in safeguarding local interests. Crafted from sturdy coral, this fortress stood as a testament to the region's commitment to security and defense. With rounded corner towers and a compact layout measuring approximately 22 × 25 meters, it exemplified architectural pragmatism in its design.Internally, the fortress boasted a simple yet functional layout, featuring a square structure with two rooms. Influenced by architectural styles from neighboring empires such as Parthian and Sasanian, these fortresses likely served as residences for the affluent elite, reflecting the social hierarchy of the time.Similar fortifications, including one in Bahrain dating back to the first half of the third century CE, echoed the prevalence of this architectural trend throughout the region. El-Dur itself emerged as a prosperous center, evidenced by the discovery of artifacts such as Roman glass, Parthian glazed pottery, and Indian red polished ware, underscoring its significance in regional trade networks.Dibba, another prominent settlement in the vicinity, served as a bustling marketplace, further fueling the region's economic vitality. However, despite initial prosperity, economic decline set in during the third century, possibly due to external factors such as the expansionist policies of Sasanian ruler Ardashir (224–241), leading to a decline in settlements within the region.As we delve deeper into the rich tapestry of history woven in the Suhar region, we uncover not just the echoes of ancient trade routes but also the enduring legacy of fortifications that once safeguarded its prosperity. Through archaeological discoveries and historical insights, we gain a glimpse into a bygone era where commerce and defense shaped the destiny of nations.
The Northwest
Unveiling the Nabataean Expansion:
In the captivating tapestry of ancient history, the Nabataeans emerge as prominent players, their influence stretching far beyond their capital city of Petra. In the second century CE, they embarked on a southward expansion into the Hijaz region, establishing themselves in the sprawling oases of Midian, Taymaʾ, and Madaʾin Salih (Hegra). This expansion coincided with the collapse of the Minaean kingdom, allowing the Nabataeans to seize control of long-distance trade routes, ferrying precious cargo from Asia and South Arabia to the shores of the Mediterranean.
Their mastery over trade was complemented by strategic ports like Leuke Kome and Egra Kome, which supplemented the land routes secured through well-placed way-stations. In a significant turn of events, in the year 106 CE, the region was annexed to the Roman Empire, becoming part of the Provincia Arabia and forging closer ties with Greater Syria and the Mediterranean world.
Taymaʾ, one of the key settlements, retained its importance throughout this period, its rich history still awaiting full exploration. A sprawling palatial complex, deserted since the third century CE, sprawls over approximately 2 hectares to the north of the ancient temple, a testament to the region's past grandeur. Additionally, Qasr ar‐Radm, likely dating to the same period, remains shrouded in mystery regarding its function.
The architectural prowess of the Nabataeans finds expression in the severe classical façades of their funerary monuments, meticulously carved out of the bedrock and adorned with distinctive crenellations, as seen in sites like Madaʾin Salih and Maghaʾir Shuʿayb. These monuments stand as enduring testaments to the masterful stone masonry skills of the Nabataeans.
Distinctive features of Nabataean art, such as capitals with projecting corners and exquisitely painted pottery known for its eggshell-thin delicacy, were also exported as luxury goods, further enhancing the region's reputation as a center of artistic and commercial excellence.
- In the second century CE, the Nabataeans extended their influence southwards from Petra into the Hijaz region, encompassing oases like Midian, Taymaʾ, and Madaʾin Salih (Hegra).
- Nabataeans seized control of long-distance trade routes following the collapse of the Minaean kingdom, facilitating the transportation of valuable cargo from Asia and South Arabia to the Mediterranean.
- Strategic ports like Leuke Kome and Egra Kome supplemented land routes secured through way-stations, enhancing Nabataean trade networks.
- In 106 CE, the region was annexed to the Roman Empire, becoming part of the Provincia Arabia and establishing closer ties with Greater Syria and the Mediterranean.
- Taymaʾ remained a significant settlement throughout history, with ongoing archaeological exploration revealing a deserted palatial complex dating back to the third century CE.
- Qasr ar‐Radm, likely contemporaneous with this period, awaits further investigation to uncover its function.
- Nabataean architectural prowess is evident in the severe classical façades of funerary monuments at sites like Madaʾin Salih and Maghaʾir Shuʿayb, showcasing masterful stone masonry.
- Nabataean art features distinctive capitals with projecting corners and exquisitely painted pottery, exported as luxury goods to enhance the region's reputation as a center of artistic and commercial excellence.
Exploring Qaryat al-Faw:
- Flourishing under the rule of the Kinda during the first to third century CE, Qaryat al-Faw stood as a beacon of prosperity in south central Arabia.
- Despite the suzerainty of the Himyarite kings over the region, Qaryat al-Faw thrived as a vibrant city, attracting different tribes and fostering a unique form of governance akin to a merchant republic.
- The city's autonomy is exemplified by its ability to mint its own coins, symbolizing its economic and political independence.
- Positioned strategically along trade routes, Qaryat al-Faw became a crucial hub for the exchange of precious goods, serving as a gateway to the Levant, Egypt, and the Gulf region.
- The bustling commerce facilitated by Qaryat al-Faw not only enriched the city but also contributed to the broader economic networks of the Arabian Peninsula, shaping its cultural and commercial landscape during this period of history.
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| Madaʾin Salih (Hegra), façade of a tomb (first century ce) |
- From approximately 300 BCE to the early first century CE, the Minaeans inhabited Qaryat al-Faw, leaving an indelible mark on the city's culture with influences from Maʿin, Yemen.
- Despite writing inscriptions in Old South Arabian, the spoken language in Qaryat al-Faw was North Arabian, reflecting the city's diverse linguistic heritage.
- Extensive excavations by the Saudi Arabian Department of Antiquities have unearthed a wealth of artifacts, showcasing the city's diverse material culture.
- Qaryat al-Faw boasted a high standard of living, evident from the discovery of bronze figures from Egypt and the Levant, glassware from Italy and Syria, as well as pottery from Parthia and Nabataea, along with significant quantities of textiles.
- Despite being mostly imports, these luxury goods attest to the availability of high-quality items enjoyed by the city's inhabitants.
- Fragments of bronze and large stone statues further highlight the artistic and cultural richness of Qaryat al-Faw.
- While the city was not fortified, extensive walls surrounded it, indicating a well-organized urban plan.
- Qaryat al-Faw featured distinct quarters, including areas for the royal palace, temple, and residential zones, suggesting a structured layout.
- The city's water supply was carefully managed through canals and cisterns, reflecting thoughtful urban planning.
- Nestled within an oasis of palms and verdant fields, Qaryat al-Faw was often described as a paradise, earning it the moniker "dhat jannan" (endowed with a garden).
- The extent to which Qaryat al-Faw's planning mirrored that of Maʿin to the south remains a subject of speculation, adding to the city's allure and mystique.
Despite inscriptions being penned in Old South Arabian, the spoken language in Qaryat al-Faw resonated with North Arabian dialects, highlighting the city's diverse linguistic heritage. Over the years, meticulous excavations conducted by the Saudi Arabian Department of Antiquities have unveiled a treasure trove of artifacts, offering a glimpse into the city's vibrant material culture.Bronze figures from Egypt and the Levant, glassware from Italy and Syria, and pottery from Parthia and Nabataea are just a few examples of the diverse array of goods discovered. These artifacts bear witness to the high standard of living enjoyed by Qaryat's inhabitants, showcasing a penchant for luxury items imported from distant lands.Although primarily imports, these luxury goods hint at the availability of opulent commodities within the city. Additionally, fragments of bronze and large stone statues have been unearthed, further enriching our understanding of Qaryat al-Faw's artistic and cultural heritage.Despite lacking fortifications, extensive walls surrounded the city, indicating a well-organized urban plan. Individual quarters, including the royal palace, temple, and residential areas, were seamlessly integrated into the city's layout. The provision of water through canals and cisterns underscored the thoughtful urban planning that characterized Qaryat al-Faw.Nestled amidst an oasis of palms and verdant fields, Qaryat exuded an aura of serenity and abundance, earning it the moniker "dhat jannan" (endowed with a garden). However, the extent to which its planning mirrored that of Maʿin to the south remains a captivating mystery, adding to the allure of this ancient city.
- Five temples, each dedicated to different deities and spanning various periods, have been unearthed in Qaryat al-Faw.
- The Temple of Wadd, constructed of well-dressed limestone ashlars, formed the centerpiece of the city alongside the fortified suq and palace.
- The suq, resembling a fortified castle, featured a rectangular plan with corner and interval towers, encompassing rows of shops along its long sides and boasting amenities like a deep well and drainage channel.
- The palace complex comprised two rectangular buildings, one larger than the other, each supported by stone columns and featuring reception or assembly rooms adorned with frescoes depicting banquet scenes and nobles of Qaryat.
- Wall paintings depicting multistoried tower houses with ibex figures at the corners suggest that Qaryat's architecture may have resembled that of Yemen, with multiple stories above stone foundations, adorned with decorative patterns.
- Household items crafted from silver, gilded silver, bronze, glass, and fine ceramics reflect the affluence of Qaryat's residents, while burial chambers for kings and nobility featured stone-built structures with mausoleums or towers.
- Archaeological discoveries include the upper part of a limestone figure near the tomb of King Muʿawiya b. Rabiʾa, possibly part of a mausoleum, and a bronze funerary couch belonging to Saʿd ibn Malik, showcasing exquisite Hellenistic artistry with a bust of Artemis placed on a gilded fulcrum ending in an elegant horse's head.
- Around 300 CE, the Kinda tribe vacated the site to settle in Hadramaut, leading to the complete abandonment of Qaryat al-Faw shortly thereafter.
Yemen
Yemen's Ancient Transformations: Marib and the Rise of the Himyarites
In the annals of ancient history, Yemen emerges as a crucible of cultural exchange and political upheaval. At the turn of the millennium, the Roman expedition to Marib, under the command of Aelius Gallus, marked a significant juncture. This essay explores the repercussions of this expedition, the transformation of trade routes, and the emergence of the Himyarite kingdom in Yemen.The Roman Expedition to Marib:In 26–25 BCE, Aelius Gallus, acting on the orders of Augustus, ventured to Marib, Yemen. Despite failing to conquer the city, Gallus's destruction of the dam had profound implications. It granted the Romans access to the sea route and control over Red Sea trade, reshaping the commercial landscape of the region.Shifts in Trade Routes:The consequences of Gallus's expedition reverberated throughout Yemen. With the Romans now controlling the sea route, the once-vibrant land-based trade between Hadramaut and the Mediterranean waned. Caravan cities, integral to this trade network, faced decline as commerce shifted towards maritime routes.The Rise of the Himyarites:Amidst these changes, a new political force emerged in Yemen. The Himyarite tribes of the highlands, recognizing the evolving geopolitical dynamics, forged alliances and consolidated their power. This union culminated in the formation of a new kingdom, marking a significant chapter in Yemen's history.The Roman expedition to Marib and the subsequent rise of the Himyarites signify pivotal moments in Yemen's ancient history. These events not only transformed trade routes and commerce but also reshaped the political landscape of the region. As we delve into Yemen's past, we uncover the intricate tapestry of transformations that have shaped its destiny, highlighting the enduring legacy of its ancient civilizations.
- In 26–25 BCE, Aelius Gallus, the Roman prefect of Egypt, launched an expedition to Marib, Yemen, under the orders of Augustus. Although he failed to conquer Marib, his destruction of the dam was a significant event.
- The repercussions were profound, as the Romans now had knowledge of the sea route and gained control over Red Sea trade, establishing direct connections with ports in South Arabia and India.
- Consequently, the land-based trade routes between Hadramaut and the Mediterranean dwindled, leading to the decline of caravan cities.
- Around the turn of the era, a new political power emerged in Yemen as the Himyarite tribes of the highlands unified to form a new kingdom.
- This union culminated in the consolidation of the Sabaean and Himyarite kingdoms, resulting in the emergence of a unified kingdom that eventually encompassed all regions of Yemen.
Source :
A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru
A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru
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