The Material Culture of Pre‐ and Early Islamic Arabia // First Millennium bce

Settlement of the Arabian Peninsula:

• The Arabian Peninsula has a long history of settlement dating back to ancient times.
• Its strategic geographical location facilitated connections with India, Asia, and Africa, as well as proximity to the Mediterranean world and Mesopotamia.
• The discovery of monsoon winds in the second century BCE further enhanced trade routes and connections.
• The domestication of the one-humped camel in the eleventh century BCE revolutionized travel across arid terrains.
• Valuable commodities like incense, myrrh, and spices such as cinnamon, aloes, and cassia were crucial trade items in the ancient world.
• Regions like Hadramaut, Dhofar, Soqotra, and Somalia were known for producing sought-after goods like incense and myrrh.

The Arabian Peninsula served as a pivotal intermediary for the transfer of goods.

Cultural Landscape of the Arabian Peninsula:

• The Arabian Peninsula was integral to the cultural dynamics of the Near East in antiquity.
• The cultural landscape can be categorized into three main zones:
•   The east coast, influenced by Mesopotamian culture and later Parthian and Sasanian rule, particularly due to its proximity to the Arabian Gulf.
•  The northwest, which looked towards the Levant and the Mediterranean for cultural influences.
•  Yemen in the southwest, which developed its own independent culture that also influenced central regions of the peninsula.

Al‐ʿUla, statue, probably of a king of the dynasty of Lihyan

First Millennium bce

Heyday of Arabian High Cultures:

• The first millennium BCE marked the pinnacle of Arabian high cultures.
• Taymaʾ, situated in the northwest, served as a crucial hub on the main trade route connecting southern Arabia to Syria, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.
• Taymaʾ had established connections in long-distance trade as early as the second millennium BCE and boasted abundant water resources and flourishing agriculture.

Al-Khurayba (Dedan):

• Al-Khurayba, also known as Dedan, was situated along the incense route within the well-watered Wadi al-Qura.
• It served as the capital city of the Lihyan from the sixth to the first century BCE.
• The city's temple, located at the center of the settlement, featured a rectangular ground plan measuring 16 × 13.2 meters, with a terrace on the north side.
• The temple's roof was supported by four rectangular stone pillars.
• Inside and outside the temple, oversized statues of the kings of Lihyan were erected as votive offerings.

In the ancient landscapes of the Arabian Peninsula, thriving city cultures emerged, particularly in the northeast and southwest regions, during the pre-Christian centuries. Cities like Thaj, possibly synonymous with the prosperous Gerrha, endured through multiple periods until the fourth century CE, boasting fortified walls and hosting valuable Hellenistic-influenced artifacts amidst bustling trade routes. Yet, mysteries linger, such as the unexplored ruins of ʿAin Jawan, hinting at untold stories waiting to be uncovered. Meanwhile, in the fertile lands of southwest Arabia, Marib, Jauf, and Hadramaut nurtured high cultures of genuine creativity. Marib, in particular, stood as the nucleus of the powerful Sabaean kingdom, its influence reaching distant lands like Ethiopia, celebrated for its remarkable dam. Amidst linguistic diversity, the oasis cities formed a cohesive cultural tapestry, bound by shared scripts and trade networks. Marvels like Marib's ancient dam and the intricate water management systems underscored the region's agricultural prosperity, sustaining vibrant communities for millennia. As excavations continue to unveil the secrets of these ancient civilizations, the allure of Arabia's rich past remains as captivating as ever.

Northeastern City Cultures:

• The pre-Christian centuries witnessed flourishing city cultures in the northeast.
• Thaj, potentially identified with the prosperous city of Gerrha, experienced two periods of occupation and persisted until the fourth century CE.
• This expansive city, fortified with stone walls, stood at the crossroads of east-west trade routes and boasted valuable art objects and artifacts with a Hellenistic influence.
• Despite its significance, ʿAin Jawan, the largest ruin of this period in Saudi Arabia, remains largely unexplored.

High Cultures in Southwest Arabia:

• In Yemen, Marib, the Jauf, and Hadramaut gave rise to high cultures characterized by genuine creativity.
• Marib served as the center of the dominant Sabaean kingdom, whose cultural influence extended as far as Ethiopia, renowned for its famous dam.
• During the early seventh century BCE, the great Mukarrib of Sabaʾ, Karibʾil Watar, established a united kingdom spanning from Najran in the north to the Gulf of Aden in the south and reaching as far as Hadramaut to the east.
• Other kingdoms emerged in southwestern Arabia, including Qataban with Timnaʾ as its capital, Hadramaut with Shabwa as its capital, Ausan with the city of Miswar, and the kingdom of the Minaeans with Maʿin as its city.
• Despite linguistic variations, the oasis cities formed a cultural unit, notably utilizing the "Sabaean" script in both hieratic and cursive forms, particularly from the seventh century BCE onwards.
• Marib, along with Shabwa and Timna, was situated on the incense route, facilitating trade connections with Maʿin and Najran to the north.
• Sophisticated water management techniques enabled intensive agriculture over millennia, with Marib's famous dam, constructed in the sixth century BCE and undergoing repairs in the fifth and sixth centuries CE, being a notable example.
• The Wadi Dhana witnessed constructions dating back to the second millennium BCE, indicative of the region's ancient heritage.
• Oases to the north and south, spanning an area of 14,900 hectares, were cultivated using floodwater, contributing to the region's agricultural prosperity.

In the classical period of the Sabaean civilization, their art was distinguished by a remarkable level of abstraction, particularly evident in the design of their temple structures featuring porticoes. These temples, adorned with distinctive ibex friezes and intricately carved pillars with capitals, exemplified precision and beauty. An earlier temple within the city, boasting a portico supported by eight pillars, underwent a transformation in the eleventh century CE to become the mosque of Solomon, showcasing the enduring influence of Sabaean architecture. Throughout the Sabaean region, temples typically took the form of courtyard complexes, featuring inner courtyards surrounded by porticoes. While enclosed hypostyle temples were prevalent in the Jauf region, rectangular temples divided into two rows with three or four supports were common in areas like Maʿin and Hadramaut. Notably, temples in Hadramaut featured a distinctive bent entrance with side steps, adding to the architectural diversity of the region. This rich architectural heritage, with its blend of abstraction and precision, not only served as centers of worship but also potentially influenced later mosque architecture, highlighting the lasting impact of the Sabaean civilization on the region's cultural landscape.

Sabaean Temple Architecture:

• Characterized by extreme abstraction and precision during its classical period.
• Temple buildings typically featured a portico leading to the main structure.
• Distinctive ibex friezes adorned the temples, showcasing remarkable craftsmanship and beauty.
• Pillars with intricately carved capitals were a common feature, adding to the aesthetic appeal.
• An earlier temple within the city was repurposed in the eleventh century CE as the mosque of Solomon, demonstrating the enduring influence of Sabaean architecture.
• Temples in the Sabaean region were predominantly courtyard complexes, with inner courtyards surrounded by porticoes.
• Enclosed hypostyle temples were prevalent in the Jauf region, while rectangular temples divided into two rows with three or four supports were common in areas like Maʿin and Hadramaut.
• Temples in Hadramaut featured a distinctive bent entrance with side steps, contributing to the architectural diversity of the region.
• The architectural legacy of the Sabaeans potentially influenced later mosque architecture, underscoring their lasting impact on the cultural landscape of the region.

Shabwa, the Royal Palace (third century ce)

In addition to the insights gained from temple architecture, it's evident that the Sabaean period introduced a new style of housing, reminiscent of the classical Yemeni tower house. This innovative architecture featured sturdy stone foundation courses supporting superstructures made of wood and clay. Notably, the era also witnessed the creation of portrait heads crafted from marble and alabaster, often set into grave stelai or block-like figures. These sculptures, whether depicting figures in sitting or standing positions, showcased remarkable technical skill and a keen interest in sculptural forms. Additionally, the period saw the production of stone or bronze statues crafted as votive offerings to the deities, underscoring the depth of religious and artistic expression prevalent during this time.

Artistic Innovations in the Sabaean Period:

• Introduction of a new house type resembling the classical Yemeni tower house.
• Notable features include stone foundation courses supporting superstructures made of wood and clay.
• Portrait heads crafted from marble and alabaster were common, often set into grave stelai or block-like figures.
• Sculptures depicted figures in sitting or standing positions, showcasing technical skill and a fascination with sculptural forms.
• Production of stone or bronze statues as votive gifts for deities, highlighting religious and artistic expression during the period.

Source :
A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru