Islamic Architecture by Dxx

The emergence and evolution of Arabic calligraphy marked a significant milestone in early Islamic civilization. The earliest surviving manuscripts of the Qur'an date back to the first century of Islam, approximately from the seventh to the early eighth century CE. During the Umayyad period, traditional scripts began to transition into more geometrically structured "Kufic" styles, which continued to thrive and diversify under the Abbasids. These scripts eventually gave way to new angular and cursive trends by the tenth century. Initially driven by the imperative to preserve the Qur'anic text, this evolution catalyzed the development of a fully-fledged art form that profoundly reshaped the legacy of late antique scribal traditions. This transformative process can be examined on two primary fronts: first, at the textual level, where there was a gradual endeavor to fill in the gaps inherent in the written form of the sacred text, and secondly, at an aesthetic level, where calligraphy became a powerful visual symbol of Islam.

Emergence of Arabic calligraphy was a significant development in early Islamic civilization
Earliest manuscripts of the Qur'an date back to the first century of Islam (seventh to early eighth century CE)
Transition from traditional scripts to geometrically codified "Kufic" styles occurred during the Umayyad period
Kufic scripts continued to flourish and diversify under the Abbasids
New angular and cursive trends emerged in the tenth century, superseding Kufic styles
Evolution of calligraphy initially driven by the necessity to preserve the Qur'anic text
Development of calligraphy as a fully-fledged art form transformed late antique scribal traditions
Process analyzed at two main levels: textual, involving filling in gaps in the written form of the sacred text, and aesthetic, as a visual symbol of Islam

The Arabic Script before Islam

Before the advent of Islam, Arab society was predominantly oral, with poetry as its primary art form, cherished as an intangible heritage "in the breasts of men" according to Arabic expression. Written language held a secondary role, evidenced by the discovery of thousands of pre-Islamic inscriptions in the Arabian desert, often brief invocations or simple declarations carved by travelers and nomads. There exists a significant time gap between the last Nabataean papyri, dating back to the second century and found in Petra, and the earliest Arabic documents from the first decades of Islam in the seventh century. However, historical context suggests the likelihood of Arabic portable documents being used for correspondence, contracts, and other practical purposes during this interim period. While papyrus may have still been utilized, it may have needed to be imported, with archaeological findings in Yemen indicating the use of makeshift writing materials like palm stalks, ceramic fragments, and bones. These materials, being readily available and cost-effective, were likely employed in the neighboring Hijaz region, recognized as the birthplace of Islam, and are referenced in later Arabic accounts detailing the early notation of the Qur'an.

In antiquity, Old Arabic, the precursor to Qur'anic Arabic, was written by adopting alphabets from neighboring regions like South Arabian in Yemen and Ancient North Arabian in the Hijaz.
These scripts were all derived from the South Semitic alphabet, now represented by the Ethiopic syllabary.
The Nabataean script, originating in the northwest Arabian Peninsula, began to dominate by the fourth century, eventually evolving into the Arabic script we recognize today.
During this evolution, Nabataean letter shapes underwent progressive changes, and ligatures shifted from the top to the bottom of the writing line.
Ironically, the extinct Ancient North Arabian scripts were better suited for recording the full range of Arabic sounds compared to Nabataean.
Nabataean script, an Aramaic alphabet, had limitations, offering only around 16 letter shapes to represent the 28 phonemes of Arabic (29 including the glottal stop, hamza).
This deficiency became more pronounced for longer or less familiar texts, highlighting the challenges faced during the early years of Islam in recording Arabic texts accurately.

The origin of the Arabic script has been a subject of scholarly debate, with recent discoveries shedding new light on its roots. Previously, there was a prevailing belief among scholars that the Arabic script had its origins in Syriac, the written form of the Aramaic dialect of Edessa. Syriac was a prominent language in the first millennium, associated with the Syrian Orthodox Church and the Church of the East, also known as the "Jacobite" and "Nestorian" churches, respectively. These churches were active in missionary endeavors across the Middle East, extending their influence to regions like Yemen, East Arabia, India, and Central Asia. It is believed that in their efforts to reach out to Arab communities, particularly those in the desert areas between Syria and Iraq, they utilized the Arabic script, despite not being its inventors.

However, recent archaeological findings have challenged this notion, pointing instead to a Nabataean origin of the Arabic script. The discovery of transitional late Nabataean inscriptions, especially in Saudi Arabia, has provided compelling evidence in support of this theory. These inscriptions suggest a gradual evolution of the Nabataean script into what eventually became the Arabic script.

The Nabataeans were an ancient Semitic people who inhabited parts of present-day Jordan, Israel, and Saudi Arabia. They were known for their sophisticated civilization, particularly their mastery of trade routes and water management systems. The Nabataean script, which was based on the Aramaic alphabet, began to gain prominence in the northwest Arabian Peninsula by the fourth century.

As the Nabataean script spread and evolved, several changes occurred, including the transformation of letter shapes and the repositioning of ligatures within the writing system. This evolution ultimately led to the development of the Arabic script as we recognize it today.

The discovery of transitional Nabataean inscriptions provides valuable insights into the early development of the Arabic script and its gradual emergence as a distinct writing system. While the exact circumstances surrounding the adoption of the Arabic script by Arab communities remain subject to further research and interpretation, these findings challenge previous assumptions about its origins and underscore the complex interplay of cultural exchange and linguistic evolution in the ancient Middle East.

Only three dated pre-Islamic inscriptions in the fully formed "Arabic" script have been discovered to date.
These inscriptions are from Greater Syria: Zabad (512 CE) and Harran (568 CE), originally from churches, and a graffito from Jabal Usays (529 CE) carved by an envoy of the Ghassanid king al-Harith ibn Jabala (r. 529–569).
These inscriptions exhibit visual contrasts with the latest dated Nabataean transitional texts.
The ligatures in the Arabic script have become straight, and the tall strokes are parallel to one another and slanting to the right.
These aesthetic transformations suggest an unprecedented sense of regularity to the script, likely influenced by Syriac.
These changes eventually found their way into the earliest Qurʾanic scripts.

Qurʾanic palimpsest in Hijazi script (unknown provenance, seventh century).

The First Seven Decades of Islam

The advent of Islam in the seventh century heralded a profound transformation in the development of Arabic calligraphy, shifting from a slow, incremental process to a period of rapid, deliberate change. Within a matter of decades, the Arabs laid the foundation for a distinguished tradition of calligraphy, intertwining the written and spoken word into the fabric of their civilization. This transformative phase was initially catalyzed by the imperative to record the Qurʾan, the holy scripture of Islam, and perhaps also by the logistical demands of conquest, necessitating efficient communication across vast distances.

Beyond practical considerations, this evolution of Arabic calligraphy was situated within the broader landscape of the Middle East, a region already saturated with the sacred edifices, artifacts, and locales of older religions, notably Christianity. Emerging from the distant peripheries of the civilized world, the early Muslims sought to propagate a faith that was sometimes perceived by their new subjects as a heterodox monotheistic movement.

One can envision the new rulers of the land standing at the base of prominent monuments in Syria, Iraq, or Iran, such as the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the grand cathedral of Edessa, or the majestic palace complex of the Sasanian emperors at Ctesiphon. Faced with predominantly Christian populations, the challenge lay in instilling a sense of enduring faith. A pivotal aspect of this endeavor was the cultivation of Arabic calligraphy and its public display.

Arabic calligraphy emerged as a potent tool for cultural expression and religious assertion, serving as a visual manifestation of Islamic identity and conviction. By adorning public spaces with beautifully crafted Arabic script, the early Muslims sought to convey the permanence and authenticity of their faith to local populations. Through intricate lettering and ornate designs, calligraphers imbued the written word with a sense of reverence and authority, elevating it to a sacred art form.

In essence, the development of Arabic calligraphy during this period was not merely a matter of aesthetic refinement but a deliberate assertion of religious and cultural identity. It represented a conscious effort to carve out a distinct visual language that reflected the values, beliefs, and aspirations of the burgeoning Islamic civilization, leaving an indelible mark on the artistic and intellectual landscape of the Middle East and beyond.

The earliest dated Islamic texts include two utilitarian papyri and a rock inscription, all from around 22 AH (642–643 CE).
A rock inscription from the region of Hegra, dated two years later, possibly references the assassination of the caliph ʿUmar at the end of 23 AH (November 644).
These texts, along with other early dated rock inscriptions, primarily served utilitarian and invocatory purposes.
While there is continuity with pre-Islamic scripts, noticeable differences include the introduction of diacritical dots and dashes to distinguish sounds noted by the same letter form.
The short final letter "taʾ" is increasingly noted like a final "haʾ," facilitating grammatical distinctions.
The insertion of the letter "alif" in the middle of words to record the long sound "a" is also observed.
These innovations aimed to reduce ambiguities in the written language, enabling more accurate conveyance of information with less reliance on oral transmission.
Scholars argue that these reforms were introduced in the early years of the caliphate to facilitate correspondence with distant troops.
However, it's equally possible that some of these features existed in the script before the rise of Islam, based on contextual elements and scholarly debate.
Due to the sparse nature of evidence, determining the exact timing of these orthographic reforms remains challenging.

The earliest Qurʾanic scripts have been called “Hijazi” in modern scholarship,
based on the following description in the Fihrist (Index of Books) of the Baghdadi
bibliographer al‐Nadim, written in 987:
The first Arabic scripts were the Meccan and after that the Madinan, then the Basran,
then the Kufan. As regards the Meccan and Madinan, there is in its [sic] alifs a bend
to the right hand side and an elevation of the vertical strokes; and in its form, there
is a slight inclination. (George 2010: 31; cf.; Déroche 2009: 109–117)

Islamic coins represent a valuable and multifaceted source of historical evidence for scholars of the early Islamic period. Spanning from just a few years after the pivotal Battle of Yarmouk in 636 to the conclusion of the Umayyad caliphate in 750, these coins, minted in gold, silver, and copper, exist in significant quantities, providing insights into various aspects of monetary and administrative practices.

In the context of the seventh century, Islamic coins offer a nuanced understanding of governance at different levels, ranging from the perspective of the caliphal authority down to regional and city governors, and even extending to unofficial mints. This numismatic evidence, while sometimes limited in its scope, possesses unique qualities as a historical documentation source.

The attribution of precious metal coins, both geographically and chronologically, enables scholars to construct a coherent narrative of historical events and economic trends. By studying these coins in sequence, researchers can discern the decision-making processes of their designers, revealing both their triumphs and failures. Moreover, the continuity and evolution of coin designs over time provide valuable insights into the political, economic, and cultural dynamics of the era.

While copper coins may present challenges in terms of attribution to specific times and places, they offer a dense record of patterns and styles. Despite their limitations, copper coins contribute significantly to our understanding of trade networks, urban economies, and societal developments during the early Islamic period.

Islamic coins serve as invaluable historical artifacts, shedding light on governance structures, economic systems, and cultural exchanges in the formative years of Islam. Their study continues to enrich our understanding of this crucial period in history, offering valuable insights into the complexities of early Islamic societies.

Phase 1: Conservative Phase (Conquest to early 690s)

Minimal alteration to pre-existing monetary networks in both Mediterranean coastlands and former Sasanian territories.
In Syria, local copper production similar to Persian occupation model, while Constantinople mint coins circulated.
In the east, Iraqi and Iranian silver mints reopened in the 650s, producing replicas of Sasanian silver coins.

Transition: Fitna or Second Civil War (690s)

Rebellion by ʿAbd Allah ibn al‐Zubayr against Sufyanids, leading to distinctive ideological profiles.
Propagandistic use of coinage and inscriptions by Ibn al‐Zubayr's supporters galvanized both parties.

Phase 2: Adaptive Phase (691–699)

Caliph ʿAbd al‐Malik's reforms post-691 aimed at embedding and extending innovations.
Damascus mint serves as a monetary laboratory for experimentation with new coinage forms.
High velocity of change observed, with new forms tried and discarded annually.

Phase 3: Epigraphic Phase

Coinage abandons figured representations in favor of Arabic inscriptions exclusively.
Arabic inscription-only coins become the standard template for precious metal coinage until the thirteenth century Mongol conquests.

Simplicity and Accessibility: Coins are abundant and relatively easy to interpret, making them a favored source for historians despite their analytical complexity.

Evolutionary Trajectory: The design of early Islamic coins follows a clear path of development: from conservative and imitative to transformative and finally to innovative and aniconic.

Significant Shift: The introduction of imageless coins marks a pivotal moment, often linked with ʿAbd al‐Malik’s reform agenda and reflecting a profound change in ruling elite ideology.

Scholarly Narrative: Traditional scholarship presents a straightforward narrative: beginning with replication of late antique styles, followed by a period of experimentation, and concluding with a decisive rejection of previous practices.

Investigating Sustainability: This essay aims to explore the validity of this narrative against the backdrop of Umayyad identity formation as discussed earlier.

The Conservative Phase (650–691)

The study of early Islamic coinage offers a fascinating window into the economic, social, and political dynamics of the formative period of Islamic history. Through the analysis of coins minted during this era, historians can glean valuable insights into the monetary and administrative practices of the time, as well as the evolving identity of the nascent Islamic state. In particular, the coinage of the Umayyad period, spanning from the early years of the Muslim conquests to the end of the Umayyad caliphate in 750, provides a rich source of evidence for understanding the changing attitudes towards late antique monetary heritage and the ideological shifts within the ruling elite.

Coinage Groups:

Coppers of Greater Syria:

These coins, struck at various unidentified mints, retained Byzantine prototypes in terms of fabric and design. Despite their Christian symbolism, their issuance by local authorities aimed at sustaining economic exchange rather than expressing religious allegiance. The Muslim elite likely viewed them as tokens of local authority rather than symbols of the caliphal state.

Transition during Muʿawiya’s Reign:

Gradually, these anonymous coppers were replaced by better-produced coins naming the city of issue, yet still bearing Christian symbols and Byzantine imperial forms. This transition occurred during the reign of Muʿawiya, suggesting a continuity in the use of familiar imagery despite administrative changes.

Interpretations:

Scholars have debated the significance of Christian symbols on early Islamic coins, with some attributing them to Christian allegiance and others to the late development of Islamic presence in Syria. However, the pragmatic purpose of these coins in facilitating economic exchange likely overshadowed any religious connotations for the Muslim elite.

The coinage of the early Islamic period serves as a tangible artifact of the complex interactions between religious, political, and economic forces shaping the emerging Islamic state. By examining the evolution of coinage during this period, we can gain a deeper understanding of the diverse influences and motivations driving the formation of Islamic identity and governance.

The coinage of the early Islamic period is divided into three groups: coppers of Greater Syria, Arab-Sasanian silver, and subsequent inscriptional coins.
Syrian coppers, despite diverse designs, retained Byzantine prototypes and Christian symbolism, reflecting local economic exchange rather than caliphal authority.
Muslim elites likely approved the circulation of Byzantine-style coppers as local token coinage.
Arab-Sasanian silver, retaining Sasanian imagery, served as gubernatorial coinage in Iran and Iraq without direct ties to the caliphal office.
Inscriptions in Arabic, such as "bismillah," on Arab-Sasanian drachms foreshadowed the later epigraphic phase of Islamic coinage.

States, akin to individuals, require suitable attire to assert their position in the world, portraying themselves as legitimate governing entities.
In pre-modern eras, state legitimacy was established through a combination of practical leadership skills and perceived divine approval.
This inquiry focuses on the Umayyad state's public image during the reigns of early caliphs Muʿawiya b. Abi Sufyan (661–680) and ʿAbd al‐Malik b. Marwan (685–705).
The examination distinguishes between two forms of identity expression: public manifestations like coins, monumental architecture, and official documents bearing the caliphal seal, and more intimate expressions such as court poetry directed at local elites.
While the analysis prioritizes coinage evidence, it begins with an overview of the broader historical context.

The Evolution of Imperial Governance: Byzantine Influence on Early Islamic Rule

As the early Muslims rose to power in the late antiquity world, they found themselves inheriting two well-established traditions of imperial governance. This essay explores the profound impact of the Byzantine tradition on the early Islamic state's visual culture and governance practices.

Byzantine Imperial Tradition:

The power of the Byzantine emperor was upheld through a series of annual religious ceremonies held at holy sites.
The dissemination of the imperial image throughout the empire served to embody the ruler's presence and command adoration.
Byzantine rulers employed titulature and iconography infused with religious and imperial symbolism to reinforce their pivotal role in the well-being of their subjects.

Inheritance by the Early Muslims:

The rapid military conquests of the early Muslims from the 630s onwards led to their acquisition of the physical infrastructure and skilled labor of the Byzantine imperial system.
The material culture of the Umayyad era, according to scholar Terry Allen, was largely shaped by the resources inherited from late antiquity.

Umayyad Art as an Extension of Late Antiquity:

Terry Allen suggests that Umayyad art was essentially a branch of late antique art, constrained by the availability of existing resources and artistic practices.
The Umayyad era saw the continuation of Byzantine-inspired artistic traditions in monumental architecture, coinage, and other visual representations.

Emergence of Islamic Art:

The distinct Islamic artistic repertoire, separate from late antique influences, began to emerge with the succession of the Abbasids after the Umayyad era.
Islamic art gradually evolved to incorporate diverse cultural influences, marking a departure from the Byzantine legacy and paving the way for new artistic expressions.

The Byzantine tradition of imperial governance profoundly influenced the early Islamic state's visual culture and governance practices. While the Umayyad era witnessed the continuation of late antique artistic traditions, the subsequent Abbasid era heralded the emergence of a distinct Islamic artistic identity. Understanding these dynamics sheds light on the complex evolution of imperial governance and visual culture in the Islamic world.

The early Muslims, as conquerors of the late antiquity world, inherited two sophisticated traditions of imperial governance, notably the Byzantine.
The Byzantine tradition supported imperial power through annual religious ceremonies, widespread dissemination of the imperial image, and the use of religious and imperial symbolism in titulature and iconography.
Upon their ascent to power in the Near East from the 630s onwards, the new rulers inherited the physical infrastructure and skilled labor of the Byzantine imperial system.
According to Terry Allen, the material culture of the Umayyads was largely influenced by the resources inherited from late antiquity, positioning Umayyad art as an extension of late antique art.
The emergence of a distinct Islamic artistic repertoire, separate from late antique influences, began with the Abbasid succession following the Umayyad era.

One remarkable aspect of early Islamic material culture has puzzled investigators for a long time: this is the almost complete absence of surviving material evidence which might help us to understand the contribution made by the Sufyanids, the first branch of the Umayyad dynasty, which came to power in 661, to the formation of the hybrid material culture of the early period. Few objects of a distinctively Islamic character survive from the first seven decades of the Muslim calendar, other than inscriptions, mainly lapidary epigraphs, some administrative papyri, and a small number of poorly excavated and highly contentious archaeological sites. By contrast, by the beginning of the eighth century, under the second branch of the Umayyads known as the Marwanids, there is an abundance of evidence of many forms, including coinage, buildings, and milestones. One explanation for the lack of earlier material was that the Sufyanid state was informally organized and lacked a centralized infrastructure, so that it was incapable of producing the items which normally characterize statal presence. Jeremy Johns concludes that the first Sufyanid caliph, Muʿawiya, “attempted to found his monarchy in Syria upon the material trappings of kingship, rather than upon the business of government” (Johns 2003: 424). This bold statement relies mainly on textual and inscriptional references to present a picture of a ruler who maintained himself in power by acting like a king, rather than building robust institutions of state.

Whatever the true nature of the Sufyanid state – and recent commentators have proposed that informal administrative structures disguised a powerful state which undertook successful actions against external enemies and maintained internal peace and prosperity for two decades (Foss 2002; Hoyland 2006) – assertions of the Sufyanid caliphs’ aspirations to kingship are misleading.
The Syriac text which describes Muʿawiya’s accession expressly notes that unlike other kings, he did not wear a crown.
The later Umayyads never wore crowns, maintained a simple court which lacked elaborate ritual, and generally remained accessible to their subjects.
Evidence for Umayyad pretensions to royal status are frequently attested on the basis of the decoration and forms of their qusur (palaces) (e.g., Ettinghausen 1972), but none of this is admissible as testimony to caliphal attitudes, since no proven attestation of caliphal patronage, as opposed to that of the Umayyad elite, exists in any of these palatial sites.

The aversion to kingship, a central aspect of Islamic political thought from the Prophet’s era, was amplified in Muʿawiya’s case due to the circumstances of his authority. Leading an acephalous tribal confederation where power rested with tribal leaders, Muʿawiya opted for a style of governance that positioned him as a first among equals. His revered personal qualities of hilm (patient forbearance) and muruwwa (manly dignity) mirrored those valued in tribal leadership, emphasizing his non-royal status.

Muʿawiya's accessibility to subjects and tolerance of behaviors unconventional for a monarch further underscored his non-royal governance. An anecdote recounts an incident where a young tribesman playfully touched Muʿawiya during prayer, reflecting the informal nature of his rule. While the veracity of the tale is uncertain, its preservation highlights Muʿawiya's departure from royal norms, contrasting sharply with late antique emperorship.

Despite being hailed as "kings" by court panegyrists and poets, Muʿawiya's leadership maintained elements of tribal authority. This style endured beyond his reign, with subsequent caliphs continuing to be lauded with royal titles reminiscent of pre-Islamic tribal chiefs. Muʿawiya introduced innovations like a personal bodyguard, the establishment of the maqsura in mosques, and measures to secure succession for his son, reflecting adaptations necessary for effective governance.

The Umayyads, while monarchs, did not portray themselves as late antique kings or emperors.
Accusations of acting as kings rather than caliphs were widespread from the early eighth century onwards, reflecting the aversion to royal pretension among early Muslims.
These accusations stemmed from the perception of Umayyad rule as tyranny, equating tyranny with kingly behavior.
Despite their vast dominions, the early Umayyad caliphs' style of governance resembled that of regional Arab rulers like the Ghassanids, who did not assert royal status beyond titles conferred by Byzantine masters.
The absence of motivation for developing an iconography of caliphal authority or religious symbolism meant rulers demonstrated their legitimacy through practical displays of efficacy, such as defending territory, enacting devotions in mosques, and dispensing justice.
While emblems like objects associated with the Prophet or earlier caliphs played a role in validating caliphal legitimacy, evidence for their systematic exploitation is lacking.
Early Islam lacked a deeply rooted visual culture to transform such emblems into symbols, and there was no priestly class to endorse and elaborate symbolic systems.

Yemen

The Rise of the Himyarites:

Under the rule of the Himyarites, Yemen flourished into a formidable kingdom, exerting influence across the Arabian Peninsula.
The Himyarite kings sought to expand their dominion by unifying South Arabia and extending their rule over regions like the Hijaz, Najd, and Hasa.
Control over these newly incorporated territories was delegated to the Kinda princes, loyal vassals of the Himyarite kings.
King Abikarib Asʿad (374–446) achieved remarkable feats, uniting Arabian tribes and establishing a kingdom that spanned the entire peninsula. However, this unity was short-lived and dissipated upon his death.
Despite the kingdom's eventual fragmentation, Abikarib's reign laid the groundwork for political consolidation and fostered a period of relative peace conducive to cultural exchange.

Capital Cities:

Zafar, located in the Yemeni highlands, served as the capital of the Himyarite kingdom.
Formerly, the center of Sabaʾ was Marib, but it shifted to the highlands, specifically to Sanaa.
Zafar's antiquity is evident from mentions by ancient scholars like Pliny and Ptolemy, though its history remains shrouded in mystery.
The city was fortified with a double wall of stone ashlar, featuring nine gates and possibly four towers.
The fortress of Raidan, situated in Zafar, served as the seat of power for the rulers of Himyar, playing a pivotal role in the kingdom's governance and defense.

Jabal al‐ʿAud, bust of Athena (first century bce–first century ce).

The Rise of Monotheism in Ancient Yemen: Exploring Judaism and Christianity

Yemen's ancient history is marked by a fascinating transition towards monotheism, a shift that shaped the religious and cultural landscape of the region. In this essay, we delve into the emergence of Judaism and Christianity in ancient Yemen, examining their influence and impact during a pivotal period of socio-political change.

Monotheistic Shift under King Abikarib Asʿad:

Under the rule of King Abikarib Asʿad, Yemen witnessed a period of state unification, accompanied by notable conversions to Judaism. Scholars suggest that political factors may have influenced these conversions, reflecting the intertwining of religion and power dynamics in ancient societies. By the fifth century, dedicatory inscriptions to pagan deities had dwindled, giving way to monotheistic invocations such as "rahmanan" or "dhu samawi," symbolizing reverence for the "Lord of Heaven." Temples, once centers of polytheistic worship, fell into disuse, marking a significant cultural shift in Yemen's religious landscape.

Judaism's Influence in Ancient Yemen:

The influence of Judaism permeated various regions of ancient Yemen, with significant communities established in cities like Zafar, Marib, and Najran. As early as the fourth century, Zafar became a hub for Jewish life, hosting communities believed to have migrated from Palestine. Synagogues, known as "mkrb," dotted the Yemeni landscape, serving as centers of worship and community gatherings. The presence of Jewish communities among tribes like Madhi, Madhij, Murad, and Kinda in western Hadramaut underscored the widespread adoption of Judaism in the region.

Traces of Christianity:

While Judaism flourished, Christianity also left its mark on ancient Yemen. The city of Qaniʾ stands out as a potential site housing both Christian and Jewish structures. Archaeological findings reveal a synagogue dating back to the fourth century, alongside evidence suggesting the existence of a Christian building. These remnants shed light on the coexistence of multiple faiths in Yemen and their role in shaping its religious diversity.

Introduction to Monotheism in Yemen:

During the reign of King Abikarib Asʿad, Yemen underwent a phase of state unification, during which conversions to Judaism occurred, possibly influenced by political motives.
By the fifth century, dedicatory inscriptions to pagan gods ceased to exist, replaced by monotheistic inscriptions invoking titles such as "rahmanan" or "dhu samawi," signifying the "Lord of Heaven."
Temples fell into disuse by the end of the fourth century, their treasures either plundered or transferred to the state treasury.

Judaism in Yemen:

Zafar experienced the influence of Judaism as early as the fourth century, evidenced by the presence of a Jewish community in Bayt Hadir near Sanaa, believed to have migrated from Palestine.
Jewish communities were also established in Najran, Wusab, and regions surrounding Zafar, including the tribes of Madhi, Madhij, Murad, and Kinda in western Hadramaut.
Synagogues, known as "mkrb," were found in various Yemeni cities, including Zafar, Marib, Rayda, Naʿd, Najr, Dulaʿ, and Tanʿim. Najran likely had synagogues as well, though no archaeological evidence of Christian or Jewish cult buildings has been discovered in the region thus far.

Christianity's Presence:

Qaniʾ stands out as potentially housing a Christian building, alongside a synagogue dating back to the latter half of the fourth century. The synagogue had a rectangular plan with a portico and supports for a flat roof, as per archaeological findings.

This period in Yemen's history reflects a significant shift towards monotheistic belief systems, with Judaism gaining prominence and Christianity making its presence felt, as evidenced by the archaeological remnants scattered across the region.

Exploring Ancient Relief Panels and Artistic Styles in Zafar, Yemen

The discovery of relief panels in Zafar, Yemen, offers a captivating glimpse into the artistic expressions of ancient civilizations. In this essay, we delve into the significance of these panels and the evolution of artistic styles during the late period.

Discovery of Relief Panels:

Archaeologists unearthed life-sized relief panels in Zafar, depicting notable figures in a flat, linear style. These panels, alongside other figures, unveil a vibrant artistic tradition that thrived in ancient Yemen. Notably, the late period witnessed the development of an independent style characterized by lively, expressive scenes, often depicting riders engaged in combat. The relief panels, adorned with intricate details, completely cover the surface, showcasing the mastery of ancient artisans.

Distinctive Artistic Styles:

An intriguing aspect of the relief panels is the preference for vine motifs, particularly the "inhabited scroll." One remarkable plaque in Zafar features a vine scroll composition, enclosed within itself, exhibiting softer outlines reminiscent of sixth-century Coptic art. This ornamentation serves as a precursor to the early Islamic Umayyad artistic idiom, hinting at the cultural exchanges and influences prevalent in the region.

Interpretation and Significance:

The presence of relief panels and intricate artistic styles in Zafar highlights the cultural richness and artistic sophistication of ancient Yemeni civilizations. These artifacts provide invaluable insights into the aesthetic preferences, societal norms, and religious beliefs of the era. Moreover, the evolution of artistic styles over time reflects the dynamic nature of artistic expression and its adaptation to changing cultural landscapes.

Zafar, plaque decorated with a vine scroll composition (sixth century ce).

Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur and Ethiopian Rule:

Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur's ascension to the throne under the support of the Ethiopian Negus in the early 6th century CE marked a pivotal moment in Yemen's history. Aligning with Byzantine interests, Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur engaged in military campaigns against Arabia and Mesopotamia, precipitating Yemen's involvement in the Rome-Byzantium versus Iran conflict.

Yusuf Asʾar Yathʾar and the Rise of Judaism:

Following Ethiopian rule, Yusuf Asʾar Yathʾar, also known as Dhu Nuwas, seized power and promoted Judaism as the state religion. His reign was marked by persecution against Ethiopian and Yemeni Christians, culminating in the destruction of churches and the tragic massacre in Najran in 523 CE.

Abraha and the Ethiopian-Persian Struggle:

The Ethiopian commander Abraha emerged as a significant figure in Yemen's political landscape, deposing the Christian ruler and establishing himself as the legitimate ruler of the Arabian Peninsula. His reign witnessed the construction of numerous churches, symbolizing his authority and influence.

Persian Influence and Islamic Conversion:

The rise of the Sasanian Shah, Khusraw Anushirwan, led to the end of Ethiopian rule in Yemen. With the arrival of Persian satraps, Yemen transitioned into a Persian province by 579 CE. The conversion of the last Persian satrap to Islam marked a pivotal moment in Yemen's religious landscape, leading to the construction of the first congregational mosque in Sanaa.

Cultural Transformation and Legacy:

The political upheavals and religious shifts in ancient Yemen transformed the cultural landscape of the region. From the conflicts between Christianity, Judaism, and Persian influence emerged a diverse tapestry of religious beliefs and traditions that continue to shape Yemen's identity to this day.

The historical events in ancient Yemen reflect the intricate interplay between religion and politics, shaping the region's identity and cultural legacy. From the reigns of Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur to the conversion to Islam under Persian rule, Yemen's rich history underscores the complexities of power struggles and religious dynamics in the ancient world.

The cultural landscape of Yemen underwent significant changes during this period, leading to the decline and ruin of many ancient cities.
The collapse of the dam between 575 and 600 dealt a final blow to Marib, causing it to lose its importance as a regional center.
Zafar, the capital of the Himyarite kingdom, retained its significance until the reign of Abraha, serving as the political hub with its prominent Raydan Palace.
Sanaa emerged as a pivotal city under Abraha's rule, intended to become a major Christian pilgrimage site.
The renowned Ghumdan Castle, believed to be a masterpiece of Arab architecture, likely dates back to around 200 CE and became an enduring symbol in cultural memory.
Descriptions of Ghumdan highlight its towering height, transparent alabaster roof, and opulent interior decorations, including colored stone inlay on the façades.
Ghumdan's architectural features, such as bronze lions at the corners and terraces adorned with statues of ibexes, are reminiscent of similar structures described in historical accounts and depicted in rock paintings near Sanaa.

Saqaf/Khaulan painting of a castle (probably Ghumdan, second–third century )

Source :

A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru

Exploring Maliha and Its Surroundings:

Maliha, situated in the Emirate of Sharjah, has a rich history dating back to the third century BCE.
During the first centuries CE, Maliha boasted large houses featuring interior courtyards and two palaces, indicative of its prosperity.
Archaeological findings of sophisticated grave goods further attest to the affluence of Maliha's inhabitants.
The city served as a hub for trade, with luxury items imported from regions like the Levant, Mesopotamia, Iran, and India, potentially exchanged for pearls.
Around 200 CE, a formidable fortress measuring 60 × 65 meters was constructed in Maliha, featuring rectangular centrally placed and corner towers made of mud brick.
The fortress's east gate, adorned with a projecting rectangular tower, highlighted its architectural sophistication.
The courtyard was surrounded by rows of oblong rooms, utilized for storage, metalworking, and coin minting, showcasing Maliha's industrial capabilities.
Living quarters, where luxury objects were discovered, were predominantly located on the ground floor of the north side.
A second castle dating back to the third century CE, measuring 32 × 30 meters and featuring rectangular towers and an intricate façade, was enclosed by a fortification wall measuring 65 × 70 meters, adding to Maliha's architectural diversity and defensive capabilities.

Marib, Awam cemetery, tombstone (second–first century bce).

Trade and Fortifications in the Suhar Region:

The port of Suhar, active in Indian Ocean trade since the second to third century, facilitated the import of goods from India, contributing to the region's economic prosperity.
Around 200 to 250 CE, a smaller fortress was constructed in El-Dur, a significant settlement in the area.
Built of coral, the fortress had an almost square ground plan measuring 22 × 25 meters, featuring rounded corner towers.
Internally, it comprised a roughly square construction with two rooms, showcasing modest yet functional architecture.
Influenced possibly by Parthian and Sasanian architecture, such fortresses likely served as residences for the elite, reflecting the societal structure of the time.
Similar fortresses, including the one in Bahrain dating to the first half of the third century CE, attest to this architectural trend.
El-Dur thrived as a wealthy center, evidenced by discoveries of Roman glass, Parthian glazed pottery, terra sigillata pottery, and Indian red polished ware.
Dibba hosted a significant market, further highlighting the region's economic activity.
However, economic decline set in during the third century, possibly due to the expansionist policies of Sasanian ruler Ardashir (224–241), leading to a decrease in settlements in the area.

In the heart of the Arabian Peninsula lies the historic port of Suhar, a bustling hub that has thrived on Indian Ocean trade since the second to third century. Its strategic location facilitated the import of goods from India, enriching the region's economy and cultural landscape.

During this era of maritime prosperity, the nearby settlement of El-Dur witnessed the construction of a smaller fortress, signaling the importance of fortifications in safeguarding local interests. Crafted from sturdy coral, this fortress stood as a testament to the region's commitment to security and defense. With rounded corner towers and a compact layout measuring approximately 22 × 25 meters, it exemplified architectural pragmatism in its design.

Internally, the fortress boasted a simple yet functional layout, featuring a square structure with two rooms. Influenced by architectural styles from neighboring empires such as Parthian and Sasanian, these fortresses likely served as residences for the affluent elite, reflecting the social hierarchy of the time.

Similar fortifications, including one in Bahrain dating back to the first half of the third century CE, echoed the prevalence of this architectural trend throughout the region. El-Dur itself emerged as a prosperous center, evidenced by the discovery of artifacts such as Roman glass, Parthian glazed pottery, and Indian red polished ware, underscoring its significance in regional trade networks.

Dibba, another prominent settlement in the vicinity, served as a bustling marketplace, further fueling the region's economic vitality. However, despite initial prosperity, economic decline set in during the third century, possibly due to external factors such as the expansionist policies of Sasanian ruler Ardashir (224–241), leading to a decline in settlements within the region.

As we delve deeper into the rich tapestry of history woven in the Suhar region, we uncover not just the echoes of ancient trade routes but also the enduring legacy of fortifications that once safeguarded its prosperity. Through archaeological discoveries and historical insights, we gain a glimpse into a bygone era where commerce and defense shaped the destiny of nations.

The Northwest

Unveiling the Nabataean Expansion:

In the captivating tapestry of ancient history, the Nabataeans emerge as prominent players, their influence stretching far beyond their capital city of Petra. In the second century CE, they embarked on a southward expansion into the Hijaz region, establishing themselves in the sprawling oases of Midian, Taymaʾ, and Madaʾin Salih (Hegra). This expansion coincided with the collapse of the Minaean kingdom, allowing the Nabataeans to seize control of long-distance trade routes, ferrying precious cargo from Asia and South Arabia to the shores of the Mediterranean.

Their mastery over trade was complemented by strategic ports like Leuke Kome and Egra Kome, which supplemented the land routes secured through well-placed way-stations. In a significant turn of events, in the year 106 CE, the region was annexed to the Roman Empire, becoming part of the Provincia Arabia and forging closer ties with Greater Syria and the Mediterranean world.

Taymaʾ, one of the key settlements, retained its importance throughout this period, its rich history still awaiting full exploration. A sprawling palatial complex, deserted since the third century CE, sprawls over approximately 2 hectares to the north of the ancient temple, a testament to the region's past grandeur. Additionally, Qasr ar‐Radm, likely dating to the same period, remains shrouded in mystery regarding its function.

The architectural prowess of the Nabataeans finds expression in the severe classical façades of their funerary monuments, meticulously carved out of the bedrock and adorned with distinctive crenellations, as seen in sites like Madaʾin Salih and Maghaʾir Shuʿayb. These monuments stand as enduring testaments to the masterful stone masonry skills of the Nabataeans.

Distinctive features of Nabataean art, such as capitals with projecting corners and exquisitely painted pottery known for its eggshell-thin delicacy, were also exported as luxury goods, further enhancing the region's reputation as a center of artistic and commercial excellence.

In the second century CE, the Nabataeans extended their influence southwards from Petra into the Hijaz region, encompassing oases like Midian, Taymaʾ, and Madaʾin Salih (Hegra).
Nabataeans seized control of long-distance trade routes following the collapse of the Minaean kingdom, facilitating the transportation of valuable cargo from Asia and South Arabia to the Mediterranean.
Strategic ports like Leuke Kome and Egra Kome supplemented land routes secured through way-stations, enhancing Nabataean trade networks.
In 106 CE, the region was annexed to the Roman Empire, becoming part of the Provincia Arabia and establishing closer ties with Greater Syria and the Mediterranean.
Taymaʾ remained a significant settlement throughout history, with ongoing archaeological exploration revealing a deserted palatial complex dating back to the third century CE.
Qasr ar‐Radm, likely contemporaneous with this period, awaits further investigation to uncover its function.
Nabataean architectural prowess is evident in the severe classical façades of funerary monuments at sites like Madaʾin Salih and Maghaʾir Shuʿayb, showcasing masterful stone masonry.
Nabataean art features distinctive capitals with projecting corners and exquisitely painted pottery, exported as luxury goods to enhance the region's reputation as a center of artistic and commercial excellence.

Exploring Qaryat al-Faw:

Flourishing under the rule of the Kinda during the first to third century CE, Qaryat al-Faw stood as a beacon of prosperity in south central Arabia.
Despite the suzerainty of the Himyarite kings over the region, Qaryat al-Faw thrived as a vibrant city, attracting different tribes and fostering a unique form of governance akin to a merchant republic.
The city's autonomy is exemplified by its ability to mint its own coins, symbolizing its economic and political independence.
Positioned strategically along trade routes, Qaryat al-Faw became a crucial hub for the exchange of precious goods, serving as a gateway to the Levant, Egypt, and the Gulf region.
The bustling commerce facilitated by Qaryat al-Faw not only enriched the city but also contributed to the broader economic networks of the Arabian Peninsula, shaping its cultural and commercial landscape during this period of history.

Madaʾin Salih (Hegra), façade of a tomb (first century ce)

From approximately 300 BCE to the early first century CE, the Minaeans inhabited Qaryat al-Faw, leaving an indelible mark on the city's culture with influences from Maʿin, Yemen.
Despite writing inscriptions in Old South Arabian, the spoken language in Qaryat al-Faw was North Arabian, reflecting the city's diverse linguistic heritage.
Extensive excavations by the Saudi Arabian Department of Antiquities have unearthed a wealth of artifacts, showcasing the city's diverse material culture.
Qaryat al-Faw boasted a high standard of living, evident from the discovery of bronze figures from Egypt and the Levant, glassware from Italy and Syria, as well as pottery from Parthia and Nabataea, along with significant quantities of textiles.
Despite being mostly imports, these luxury goods attest to the availability of high-quality items enjoyed by the city's inhabitants.
Fragments of bronze and large stone statues further highlight the artistic and cultural richness of Qaryat al-Faw.
While the city was not fortified, extensive walls surrounded it, indicating a well-organized urban plan.
Qaryat al-Faw featured distinct quarters, including areas for the royal palace, temple, and residential zones, suggesting a structured layout.
The city's water supply was carefully managed through canals and cisterns, reflecting thoughtful urban planning.
Nestled within an oasis of palms and verdant fields, Qaryat al-Faw was often described as a paradise, earning it the moniker "dhat jannan" (endowed with a garden).
The extent to which Qaryat al-Faw's planning mirrored that of Maʿin to the south remains a subject of speculation, adding to the city's allure and mystique.

Despite inscriptions being penned in Old South Arabian, the spoken language in Qaryat al-Faw resonated with North Arabian dialects, highlighting the city's diverse linguistic heritage. Over the years, meticulous excavations conducted by the Saudi Arabian Department of Antiquities have unveiled a treasure trove of artifacts, offering a glimpse into the city's vibrant material culture.

Bronze figures from Egypt and the Levant, glassware from Italy and Syria, and pottery from Parthia and Nabataea are just a few examples of the diverse array of goods discovered. These artifacts bear witness to the high standard of living enjoyed by Qaryat's inhabitants, showcasing a penchant for luxury items imported from distant lands.

Although primarily imports, these luxury goods hint at the availability of opulent commodities within the city. Additionally, fragments of bronze and large stone statues have been unearthed, further enriching our understanding of Qaryat al-Faw's artistic and cultural heritage.

Despite lacking fortifications, extensive walls surrounded the city, indicating a well-organized urban plan. Individual quarters, including the royal palace, temple, and residential areas, were seamlessly integrated into the city's layout. The provision of water through canals and cisterns underscored the thoughtful urban planning that characterized Qaryat al-Faw.

Nestled amidst an oasis of palms and verdant fields, Qaryat exuded an aura of serenity and abundance, earning it the moniker "dhat jannan" (endowed with a garden). However, the extent to which its planning mirrored that of Maʿin to the south remains a captivating mystery, adding to the allure of this ancient city.

Five temples, each dedicated to different deities and spanning various periods, have been unearthed in Qaryat al-Faw.
The Temple of Wadd, constructed of well-dressed limestone ashlars, formed the centerpiece of the city alongside the fortified suq and palace.
The suq, resembling a fortified castle, featured a rectangular plan with corner and interval towers, encompassing rows of shops along its long sides and boasting amenities like a deep well and drainage channel.
The palace complex comprised two rectangular buildings, one larger than the other, each supported by stone columns and featuring reception or assembly rooms adorned with frescoes depicting banquet scenes and nobles of Qaryat.
Wall paintings depicting multistoried tower houses with ibex figures at the corners suggest that Qaryat's architecture may have resembled that of Yemen, with multiple stories above stone foundations, adorned with decorative patterns.
Household items crafted from silver, gilded silver, bronze, glass, and fine ceramics reflect the affluence of Qaryat's residents, while burial chambers for kings and nobility featured stone-built structures with mausoleums or towers.
Archaeological discoveries include the upper part of a limestone figure near the tomb of King Muʿawiya b. Rabiʾa, possibly part of a mausoleum, and a bronze funerary couch belonging to Saʿd ibn Malik, showcasing exquisite Hellenistic artistry with a bust of Artemis placed on a gilded fulcrum ending in an elegant horse's head.
Around 300 CE, the Kinda tribe vacated the site to settle in Hadramaut, leading to the complete abandonment of Qaryat al-Faw shortly thereafter.

Yemen

Yemen's Ancient Transformations: Marib and the Rise of the Himyarites

In the annals of ancient history, Yemen emerges as a crucible of cultural exchange and political upheaval. At the turn of the millennium, the Roman expedition to Marib, under the command of Aelius Gallus, marked a significant juncture. This essay explores the repercussions of this expedition, the transformation of trade routes, and the emergence of the Himyarite kingdom in Yemen.

The Roman Expedition to Marib:
In 26–25 BCE, Aelius Gallus, acting on the orders of Augustus, ventured to Marib, Yemen. Despite failing to conquer the city, Gallus's destruction of the dam had profound implications. It granted the Romans access to the sea route and control over Red Sea trade, reshaping the commercial landscape of the region.

Shifts in Trade Routes:
The consequences of Gallus's expedition reverberated throughout Yemen. With the Romans now controlling the sea route, the once-vibrant land-based trade between Hadramaut and the Mediterranean waned. Caravan cities, integral to this trade network, faced decline as commerce shifted towards maritime routes.

The Rise of the Himyarites:
Amidst these changes, a new political force emerged in Yemen. The Himyarite tribes of the highlands, recognizing the evolving geopolitical dynamics, forged alliances and consolidated their power. This union culminated in the formation of a new kingdom, marking a significant chapter in Yemen's history.

The Roman expedition to Marib and the subsequent rise of the Himyarites signify pivotal moments in Yemen's ancient history. These events not only transformed trade routes and commerce but also reshaped the political landscape of the region. As we delve into Yemen's past, we uncover the intricate tapestry of transformations that have shaped its destiny, highlighting the enduring legacy of its ancient civilizations.

In 26–25 BCE, Aelius Gallus, the Roman prefect of Egypt, launched an expedition to Marib, Yemen, under the orders of Augustus. Although he failed to conquer Marib, his destruction of the dam was a significant event.
The repercussions were profound, as the Romans now had knowledge of the sea route and gained control over Red Sea trade, establishing direct connections with ports in South Arabia and India.
Consequently, the land-based trade routes between Hadramaut and the Mediterranean dwindled, leading to the decline of caravan cities.
Around the turn of the era, a new political power emerged in Yemen as the Himyarite tribes of the highlands unified to form a new kingdom.
This union culminated in the consolidation of the Sabaean and Himyarite kingdoms, resulting in the emergence of a unified kingdom that eventually encompassed all regions of Yemen.

Source :
A companion to Islamic art and architecture by Flood, Finbarr Barry Necipoğlu, Gülru

The intrinsic bond between architectural design, climatic conditions, and socio-cultural norms has historically fostered a sense of continuity in domestic architecture. However, in contemporary times, we find ourselves grappling with a rapid erosion of traditional building practices, an influx of foreign influences, and a barrage of disruptive forces. This transformation has sparked a heated discourse, with both advocates and detractors of the design professions leveling accusations of willful disregard for the past and indifference to the needs of users.

Amidst this debate, informal settlements emerge as compelling case studies, offering a lens through which to explore questions of identity. These settlements, born out of spontaneous and organic evolution, provide a stark contrast to formal urban planning processes. Devoid of regulatory constraints and preconceived design templates imposed from external sources, they offer a canvas upon which the complexities of identity formation are laid bare.

By examining the housing patterns within informal settlements, we gain insight into the intricate interplay between architecture, culture, and human experience. Here, the built environment serves as a tangible manifestation of community values, aspirations, and adaptability. It is within these humble abodes, crafted with ingenuity and resourcefulness, that the essence of identity finds its most authentic expression.

In navigating the challenges posed by rapid urbanization and globalization, architects and urban planners must heed the lessons offered by informal settlements. Rather than imposing top-down solutions, there is a pressing need to engage with local communities, harnessing their knowledge and expertise to co-create sustainable and culturally resonant built environments. Only by embracing the rich diversity of human experience can we hope to foster a built environment that is inclusive, resilient, and reflective of our collective identity.

During the post-colonial era, which commenced in the mid-1950s, Arab nations initiated national planning endeavors. These efforts often entailed the formulation and execution of multi-sectoral plans spanning five-year intervals. However, following the significant oil discoveries of 1973, oil-rich countries embarked on ambitious development initiatives. These initiatives attracted a diverse array of professionals, technicians, skilled workers, and laborers from neighboring nations and beyond, resulting in extensive regional labor movements and economic interdependencies.

The influx of capital into urban real estate from the emergent middle class, eager to invest their newfound wealth, fueled a dramatic surge in land values and construction costs. This exponential rise in property values and building expenses precipitated one of the most severe inflationary periods witnessed in urban real estate history. Between 1975 and 1982, land values skyrocketed by a factor of ten, while construction costs soared fivefold. Meanwhile, local incomes experienced only modest growth, increasing by a factor of two or three.

The prevailing development landscape was characterized by speculative ventures and a lack of regulatory oversight. This laissez-faire approach to development facilitated unchecked speculation and contributed to an environment of unrestrained growth. The repercussions of this speculative fervor reverberated throughout the urban fabric, profoundly impacting the socioeconomic dynamics of the region.

The rapid expansion of urban areas has surpassed the capacity of municipalities to effectively manage growth. Struggling to keep pace, local authorities find themselves in a precarious position, hesitant to impose taxes or release vacant land for development, yet lacking the means to exert meaningful control over peripheral expansion. This vacuum has allowed small-scale entrepreneurs and contractors to capitalize on the burgeoning demand for housing among the burgeoning middle class, thereby shaping the dynamics of the real estate market.

The consequence of this unchecked growth is twofold: the proliferation of informal settlements through leapfrogging and fringe development, and the accelerated densification of existing settlements. Informal settlements, while often viewed unfavorably, have captured the attention of planners, engineers, and architects due to their dynamic nature and relatively sturdy structures. Yet, there remains a pervasive ambivalence regarding the architectural quality of these buildings, a topic deserving of greater scrutiny given their increasing prominence within urban landscapes.

As informal settlements continue to assert their presence spatially and visually, it becomes imperative to delve into the characteristics of this emergent architectural typology. By examining the origins of its design vocabulary and identifying the factors driving its evolution, we can gain valuable insights into the complex interplay between urbanization, socio-economic dynamics, and architectural form. Such an exploration is essential for informing future interventions aimed at addressing the challenges posed by informal settlements and fostering more equitable and sustainable urban development.

In informal settlements, while there may be surface-level resemblances to historical urban fabrics, the underlying patterns diverge significantly. Here, the urban layout is characterized by a dual grid system that blends vehicular and pedestrian circulation within a modified rectilinear framework. This hierarchical grid serves as the fundamental structural framework, organizing the space into cohesive clusters of streets and buildings, each delineating distinct social spaces within the community.

The alignment and accessibility of these spaces are dictated by local conditions and prominent landmarks, such as mosques and souks, which often serve as focal points for vehicular access. Open spaces, once dominated by traditional courtyards, now reflect contemporary notions of private and social domains. They promote community interaction by facilitating movement along streets and adhering to established social norms governing public spaces.

Despite the apparent anticipation of vehicular traffic and infrastructure needs within this urban pattern, the lack of planned provisions for utilities and communal amenities exacerbates existing challenges. As densities rapidly escalate, often reaching levels comparable to overcrowded traditional quarters within a decade, the strain on resources becomes increasingly apparent. In some instances, densities have surged from less than 400 persons per hectare to 800 or even 1,000, equivalent to 400 persons per acre, exacerbating congestion and underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive planning and infrastructure development.

[The models]

The design professions have wielded significant influence in shaping the emerging popular architecture, albeit indirectly. Beyond their architectural significance, the design and aesthetics of both private constructions and public housing projects reflect a modern image that garners widespread admiration.

Workers take pride in their ability to work with innovative materials and replicate novel decorations, such as motifs, textures, and colors, rather than solely focusing on the final product's quality. However, this shift has led to a loss of traditional skills as craftsmen adapt to the demands of modern construction techniques.

Innovations in design and decoration, often introduced by wealthier segments of society or from abroad, are embraced and modified to suit the lifestyles of the target clientele. This constant interplay between users/clients and builders/designers fosters a dynamic exchange, resulting in the evolution of the new popular architecture to meet the diverse needs and preferences of its inhabitants.

[The architectural expression]

Misinterpretations of recognizable traditional building configurations have led many professionals, especially those from Western backgrounds, to mistakenly view contemporary popular architecture as a revitalized iteration of traditional models. However, in reality, the opposite holds true. There exists a palpable aversion to anything deemed old-fashioned, coupled with an irresistible allure towards the new, regardless of its suitability or cost.

Modern popular expectations and lifestyles no longer align with traditional norms. There's a clear preference for urban, functional, and modern aesthetics, rejecting any association with rural elements such as courtyards, mud materials, or barn-like appointments. Despite this rejection, certain functions persist, albeit in unconventional ways; for instance, ovens may be relocated to terraces, goats housed in bedrooms, or poultry penned on balconies or in bathrooms.

While some functionally obsolete elements are discarded without hesitation, others undergo incongruous adaptations to retain their symbolic significance. This complex interplay between modern aspirations and traditional remnants underscores the evolving nature of popular architecture, where pragmatic needs often clash with deeply ingrained cultural symbolism.

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The Qurʾan, Calligraphy, and the Early Civilization of Islam

The Arabic Script before Islam

The First Seven Decades of Islam

The Evidence of the Coinage // Islamic coins

Phase 1: Conservative Phase (Conquest to early 690s)

Transition: Fitna or Second Civil War (690s)

Phase 2: Adaptive Phase (691–699)

Phase 3: Epigraphic Phase

The Conservative Phase (650–691)

Coinage Groups:

The Formation of Religious and Caliphal Identity in the Umayyad Period

The Evolution of Imperial Governance: Byzantine Influence on Early Islamic Rule

Inheritance by the Early Muslims:

Umayyad Art as an Extension of Late Antiquity:

Emergence of Islamic Art:

The Material Culture of Pre‐ and Early Islamic Arabia // Fourth Centuries ce

Yemen

The Rise of the Himyarites:

Capital Cities:

The Rise of Monotheism in Ancient Yemen: Exploring Judaism and Christianity

Monotheistic Shift under King Abikarib Asʿad:

Judaism's Influence in Ancient Yemen:

Traces of Christianity:

Introduction to Monotheism in Yemen:

Judaism in Yemen:

Christianity's Presence:

Exploring Ancient Relief Panels and Artistic Styles in Zafar, Yemen

Discovery of Relief Panels:

Distinctive Artistic Styles:

Interpretation and Significance:

Maʿdikarib Yaʿfur and Ethiopian Rule:

The Material Culture of Pre‐ and Early Islamic Arabia // Second to Fourth Centuries ce

Exploring Maliha and Its Surroundings:

Trade and Fortifications in the Suhar Region:

The Northwest

Unveiling the Nabataean Expansion:

Exploring Qaryat al-Faw:

Yemen

Yemen's Ancient Transformations: Marib and the Rise of the Himyarites

The Material Culture of Pre‐ and Early Islamic Arabia // First Millennium bce

Settlement of the Arabian Peninsula:

Cultural Landscape of the Arabian Peninsula:

First Millennium bce

Heyday of Arabian High Cultures:

Al-Khurayba (Dedan):

Northeastern City Cultures:

High Cultures in Southwest Arabia:

Sabaean Temple Architecture:

Artistic Innovations in the Sabaean Period:

New Popular Housing in the Middle East

[The models]

[The architectural expression]

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